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====Early Phases====By the 4th millennium BC, Central Asia had begun to play an important role in trade to the ancient Near East. Lapis Lazuli, semi-precious stones, and tin by the 3rd millennium BC made the region’s resources attractive to Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia.<ref>For information on trade objects between Central Asia, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Egypt, see: Boyle, Katie, Colin Renfrew, and Marsha Levine, eds. 2002. Ancient Interactions: East and West in Eurasia. McDonald Institute Monographs. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.</ref> By the 2nd millennium BC, we also see eastern China interacting with western China and Central Asia more so, with jade objects such as jade being in high demand.<ref> For information on China’s interest in Jade, see: Fossati, Gildo. 1994. The World of Jade: Great Masterpieces of Chinese Art. New York: Crescent Books.</ref>

However, much of the trade contacts between the Near East, Europe, and China were very limited. When objects did exchange are exchanged between distant regions it , they tended to be traded indirectly by being trade to one state or region, then that . That region would trade it further down to another region. This made regions in Europe, China, and Near East , much less aware of each other. The primary reason for this state was much of Asia was politically fragmented. For example, to trade Lapis Lazuli from Central Asia to places such as Mesopotamia, in modern Iraq and Syria, trade would often have to go south to India, then by boat shipped to Mesopotamia along the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. Overland routes were possible but many tribes and small states prevented easier access of lapis by the large urban societies.<ref> For information on trade in the Near East and Central Asia in the Bronze Age, see: Mair, Victor H., Jane Hickman, and University of Pennsylvania, eds. 2014. ''Reconfiguring the Silk Road: New Research on East-West Exchange in Antiquity''. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, pg. 7.</ref> This made direct trade both expensive and difficult at times between far away states.

==Achaemenid Roots==The Silk RoadFor example, to trade Lapis Lazuli from Central Asia to places such as Mesopotamia, in many respectsmodern Iraq and Syria, develops more substantially during the Achaemenid (550-330 BC) period. At this timetrade would often have to go south to India, then by boat shipped to Mesopotamia along the Near East began to witness more long-lasting empires, providing greater trade stability throughout Indian Ocean and the regionPersian Gulf. While this began with the Neo-Assyrians (911-612 BC), the Achaemenids Overland routes were able to hold much larger territory, covering Egypt, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, the Levant, Persiapossible, but many tribes and parts of Central Asia, for almost small states prevented easier access to lapis by the entire period in which they were in powerlarge urban societies.<ref>For information regarding the Achaemenids, their control of on trade in the Near East and tradeCentral Asia in the Bronze Age, see: DaryaeeMair, Victor H., Jane Hickman, Tourajand University of Pennsylvania, ededs. 20122014. ''The Oxford Handbook of Iranian HistoryReconfiguring the Silk Road: New Research on East-West Exchange in Antiquity''. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford ; New YorkPhiladelphia, PA: Oxford University Pressof Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, pg. 7.</ref> This long period of stability allowed the Achaemenids to develop long-distance roads, including the Royal Road that connected ancient Susa in Iran with Lydia in western Anatolia. Such roads were possible not because of any major technical achievement but because much of the region was now part of one overarching state. This then began a long period of more made direct thriving trade between the Greek world, the Near East, both expensive and Central Asia. Movements difficult at times between these regions were now possible without having to cross many faraway states.

==Hellenistic and Parthian Developments==Achaemenid Roots====[[File: Silk Route extant.JPG|thumbnail|In many respects, the Silk Road]]With develops more substantially during the expansion of Alexander the Great’s empire to India and Central AsiaAchaemenid (550-330 BC) period. At this time, the Greeks became more aware of the riches of the Near East.<ref>For witnessed more information on Alexander’s interactions with Eastern cultures, see: Bosworthlong-lasting empires, A. B. 1998. Alexander and providing greater trade stability throughout the East: The Tragedy of Triumph. Oxford: Oxford University Pressregion.</ref> Contacts between China and the Hellenistic world were likely made at While this time, began with Alexander having established the city of Alexandria Eschate Neo-Assyrians (or Alexander the Farthest911-612 BC) that became an important trading city along the emerging Silk Road. By the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms Achaemenids were establishedable to hold much larger territory, covering Egypt, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, further promoting contacts between Greekthe Levant, IndianPersia, and parts of Central Asian culturesAsia, for almost the entire period in which they were in power.<ref>For information on Hellenistic-influenced kingdoms in Central Asiaregarding the Achaemenids, their control of the Near East, and trade, see: Bactrian and Indian Hellenistic Dynasties: Greco-Bactrian KingsDaryaee, Indo-Greek KingsTouraj, Demetrius I ed. 2012. ''The Oxford Handbook of Bactria, Euthydemus I, Diodotus IIranian History''. Oxford Handbooks. MemphisOxford ; New York: LLC BooksOxford University Press. </ref>

However, formal establishment This long period of stability allowed the Silk Road can be argued Achaemenids to have begun under Parthian (247 BCdevelop long-224 AD) leadership. We know that Mithridates II (121-91 BC) is the first known Near Eastern king to have established political and diplomatic relations with a Chinese rulerdistance roads, to whom including the Parthian king sent an ambassador.<ref> For more information on the relevance of the diplomatic connections between Parthia and China to the Silk Royal Road, see: Edwards, Chris. 2015. Connecting the Dots that connected ancient Susa in World History, a Teacher’s Literacy-Based Curriculum. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, pg. 90.</ref> This act paved the way for the establishment of long-distance trade contacts Iran with China and created the long-term basis for the Silk Road along which silk was traded from China up to the Mediterranean, crossing Parthian lands. This made the Parthians key actors Lydia in the tradewestern Anatolia. What is significant is even in times Such roads were possible not because of any major conflicts, such as between Rome and technical achievement but because much of the Parthians, trade region was not as easily disrupted as it had been in earlier periodsnow part of one overarching state. This begins to show the importance then began a long period of wealth and financial power traders had in maintaining strong more direct thriving trade ties despite volatile political conditions.<ref>For information during between the Roman period with the East, see: McLaughlinGreek world, Raoul. 2010. ''Rome and the Distant Near East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China''Central Asia. London ; New York: Continuum.</ref> In fact, it was not just land routes across Asia that thrived but sea trade across the Old World also thrivedMovements between these regions were now possible without having to cross many states.

==Later Periods==Hellenistic and Parthian Developments====[[File: Silk Route extant.JPG|thumbnail|left|Silk Road]]With the expansion of Alexander the Great’s empire to India and Central Asia, the Greeks became more aware of the East's riches.<ref>For more information on Alexander’s interactions with Eastern cultures, see: Bosworth, A. B. 1998. Alexander and the East: The Tragedy of Triumph. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> Contacts between China and the Hellenistic world were likely made at this time, with Alexander having established the city of Alexandria Eschate (or Alexander the Farthest) that became an important trading city on the emerging Silk Road. By the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms were established, further promoting contacts between Greek, Indian, and Central Asian cultures.<ref>For information on Hellenistic-influenced kingdoms in Central Asia, see: Bactrian and Indian Hellenistic Dynasties: Greco-Bactrian Kings, Indo-Greek Kings, Demetrius I of Bactria, Euthydemus I, Diodotus I. Memphis: LLC Books. </ref>

During However, the Roman period, we begin Silk Road's formal establishment can be argued to see wealthy Romans now having regular access to objects coming from China or Central Asiahave begun under Parthian (247 BC-224 AD) leadership. Along with products such as incense We know that Mithridates II (i.e. frankincense and myrrh121-91 BC) from southern Arabia, silk began is the first known Near Eastern king to be the major commodity of desire by wealthy citizenshave established political and diplomatic relations with a Chinese ruler. The Parthian king sent an ambassador.<ref>For more information about on the silk trade during relevance of Parthia and China's diplomatic connections to the Roman periodSilk Road, see: The Roman Empire and Edwards, Chris. 2015. Connecting the Silk Routes The Ancient Dots in World Economy and the Empires of ParthiaHistory, Central Asia and Han Chinaa Teacher’s Literacy-Based Curriculum. 2015Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, pg. Pen & Sword90.</ref> By <dh-ad/>This act paved the 5th century AD, way for establishing long-distance trade contacts with the decline of the Roman Empire, demand in Europe for Chinese silk China and products declined. However, it continued to thrive in created the Near East; in fact, long-term basis for most of the history of the Silk Road it , along which silk was traded from China up to the Near East empiresMediterranean, starting from crossing Parthian lands. This made the Parthianskey actors in the trade. What is significant is even in times of major conflicts, such as between Rome and continuing to the Islamic empires that had a dominant role in facilitating Parthians, trade along the Silk Road, which was to have a major effect on European thinking not as easily disrupted as it had been in later earlier periods. Nevertheless, commodities and technologies such as gunpowder, paper, and the magnetic compass from China made their way This begins to show the Near East in the Middle Ages importance of wealth and then were transferred to Europe. Chinese porcelain ceramics also became influential and were imitated both financial power traders had in Europe and the Near Eastmaintaining strong trade ties despite volatile political conditions.<ref> For information about key technologies that were traded along during the Roman period with the Silk RoadEast, see: ChristensenMcLaughlin, BonnieRaoul. 20132010. ''A Single PebbleRome and the Distant East: A Story Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of the Silk RoadArabia, India, and China''. First edition. London ; New York: Roaring Brook PressContinuum.</ref>In fact, it was not just land routes across Asia that thrived, but sea trade across the Old World also thrived.

It was not just trade of technologies or commodities that made ====Later Periods====During the Silk Road important but it was major motivations for exploration and exchange of ideas that made the Silk Road influential. Religions such as Islam and Buddhism expanded along parts of the Silk Road and facilitated these religions in reaching Roman period, we begin to see wealthy Romans now having regular access to objects coming from China and Eastern or Central Asia.<ref>For information on Islam expanding along the Silk Road, see: Elverskog, JohanAlong with incense products (i. 2010e. ''Buddhism frankincense and Islam on the Silk Road''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Pressmyrrh) from southern Arabia, http://ezproxy.viu.ca/login?url=http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780812205312/.</ref> In Europe, with silk began to be the beginning major commodity of the Renaissance, greater desire for luxury items from China once again reached levels seen during the Roman period. At this time, however, there was a realization that much of the trade was controlled by the Islamic states, including the rising Ottomanswealthy citizens.<ref>For information on how about the Ottomans influenced European sea explorationsilk trade during the Roman period, see: Beckwith, Christopher I. 2011. ''Empires of The Roman Empire and the Silk Road: A History Routes The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present''. 7th printing Asia, and first paperback printingHan China. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ2015. Press, pgPen & Sword. 208</ref> The desire to reach China and its riches motivated Europeans to find alternative routesBy the 5th century AD, leading to with the exploration decline of the New World. In effectRoman Empire, the discoveries by Columbus and later explorers demand in the 15th Europe for Chinese silk and 16th centuries were a reaction against the control of trade by Islamic powers in the Near East and Central Asiaproducts declined.

It was not just the trade of technologies or commodities that made the Silk Road important. Still, it was major motivations for exploration and exchange of ideas that made the Silk Road influential. Religions such as Islam and Buddhism expanded along with parts of the Silk Road and facilitated these religions in reaching China and Eastern Asia.<ref>For information on Islam expanding along the Silk Road, see: Elverskog, Johan. 2010. ''Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, http://ezproxy.viu.ca/login?url==Summary==http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780812205312/.</ref>

With the beginning of the Renaissance in Europe, a greater desire for luxury items from China reached levels seen during the Roman period. At this time, however, there was a realization that much of the trade was controlled by the Islamic states, including the rising Ottomans.<ref>For information on how the Ottomans influenced European sea exploration, see: Beckwith, Christopher I. 2011. ''Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present''. 7th printing and first paperback printing. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, pg. 208</ref> The desire to reach China and its riches motivated Europeans to find alternative routes, leading to the New World's exploration. In effect, Columbus and later explorers' discoveries in the 15th and 16th centuries were a reaction against the control of trade by Islamic powers in the Near East and Central Asia.  ====Summary====With the discovery of the New World, Europe now had a unique source of wealth that was less dependent on other regions controlling trade. This led to the large-scale growth of economic power growth in Europe and allowed it to reach major technical advantages by the early modern period in the 17th and 18th centuries. In effect, one can argue it was the Silk Road that motivated Europe to seek new access to the riches of trade with the East. That motivated early explorers to make new discoveries that paved the way for the rise of European powers to become dominant political actors across the world worldwide over the last four centuries. This, along with the technical achievements and ideas that spread along the Silk Road, had a lasting and profound effect on world history and shaping our modern world.

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