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Never gonna give you up, Daily History!</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_de_Medici_contribute_to_the_Renaissance&diff=16367How did the de Medici contribute to the Renaissance2019-05-13T17:54:47Z<p>EricLambrecht: </p>
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<div>__NOTOC__<br />
[[File:Medici Three.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Cosimo De Medici]]<br />
What were the contributions of the de Medici family to the Renaissance in Italy during the fifteenth century? The de Medicis were the effective rulers of the Florentine Republic in the 15th century, and they later became the ruling house of Florence in the 16th and 17th century. The family, especially in the fifteenth century made a decisive contribution to the Renaissance in Italy. <br />
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This contribution was through their patronage of the arts in their native Florence and their policies that favored peace and stability in Italy. The de Medicis made a real and telling contribution to the arts, politics, and stability of Italy and encouraged the intellectual and cultural flourishing that became known as the Renaissance. <br />
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====De Medici-Background====<br />
The Medici family originally originate in a small village to the north of Florence. In the thirteenth century, the first Medici arrived in Florence. The family soon prospered in their new home. The early De Medici’s made their money in the wool trade. They used the profits that they made in the wool trade to diversify their business interests. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici (c. 1360–1429), increased the wealth of the family and established the Medici Bank, and became one of the richest men in the city of Florence.<ref> Hibbert, Christopher. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0688053394/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0688053394&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=3a60f5b995328d84b5c49af6c25a9362 The House of Medici: Its Rise and Fall]</i>. Morrow (London, Morrow, 1975) </ref> The Medici became involved in politics, and they were often involved with the popular party in Florence. In general, the Medici liked to influence politics from behind the scene and used their wealth and connections to achieve their goals. In 1434 Cosimo the Elder was elected as one of the leaders of the Florentine Republic, and although he was only one of several magistrates who ruled the city, he came to dominate it.<ref> Ferdinand Schevill, <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B0006D8BXY/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B0006D8BXY&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=d7f7869357eb87e0ad2906fa13cffb47 History of Florence: From the Founding of the City Through the Renaissance]</i> (London, Frederick Ungar, 1936), p. 113</ref> <br />
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Cosimo was a very effective leader and was a skilled negotiator, and he brought stability to the city and made it even wealthier. Before Cosimo, the city had been regularly disturbed and unsettled by political factions and influential families. Cosimo was succeeded by his son Piero who had little of the abilities of his father. He died while still quite young and was succeeded by his son Lorenzo, who is known to history as Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was an excellent ruler and brought peace and prosperity to Florence and its hinterland. <br />
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However, the De Medici business fortunes began to falter, and this ultimately weakened their hold on Florence. Lorenzo and the Medici survived a plot to kill them and seize power in 1474.<ref>Schevill, p. 115</ref> After Lorenzo died, his son became head of Florence but he was incompetent, and he provoked a popular uprising against the family, and this led to their expulsion from Florence from 1494-1512. The Family was restored to Florence in 1512, and they eventually became the Dukes of Florence. However, the glory days were gone, the later de Medici was not as powerful or as rich as their predecessors, and Florence became a political and cultural backwater.<ref>Paul Strathern, <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1844130983/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1844130983&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=a398a7e529dca0fff02bd3e08ca6b25a The Medici—Godfathers of the Renaissance]</i> (London, Pimlico, 2005), p. 213</ref><br />
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====de Medici and Florence====<br />
In the 15th century when the de Medici was at the height of their powers, they dominated Florence.<ref> Lauro Martines, <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/019517609X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=019517609X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=654c7c84b58e8d9216a561104ef011e1 April Blood: Florence and the Plot Against the Medici]</i> (Oxford, Oxford University Press 2003, p. 114)</ref> However, they were eager to appear as first among equals, they went to great lengths to allow the other noble and wealthy families to secure many of the offices in the City-Republic’s government.<ref> Schevill, p. 115</ref> This reconciled many of them to the domination of their Republic by one family. The de Medici were fabulously wealthy at least until the 1480s, and their wealth was able to smooth out any difficulties that they had experienced and the City of Florence experienced a period of peace and stability because of the de Medici's wealth. This period of tranquility was unique in the city’s history that well-known for its political turbulence. The de Medici brought stability to the city and this allowed trade to flourish and also the arts. The stability that the de Medici provided allowed Florence to become a cultural center. <br />
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The city’s artists and writers took advantage of the peace and stability to develop new styles of art in security. Then the de Medici were quite tolerant for the times.<ref> Martines, p. 145</ref> They were mostly secular in outlook and their power meant that the city’s artists and writers did not have to fear from the Inquisition or clerical interference.<ref>Schevill, p. 117</ref> The Medici, especially Lorenzo the Magnificent was broad-minded. Indeed, Lorenzo was himself a distinguished poet, and this led to an atmosphere where new ideas and practices were encouraged and even promoted in Florence.<ref> Strathern, p. 117</ref> <br />
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The de Medic had long been associated with the Humanists. Lorenzo the Magnificent was himself taught by a well-known Humanist and was sympathetic to the aims of the movement. For this reason, humanism and its ideas on human reason and capabilities flourished in the city. Indeed, many humanists such as De Valla were able to secure employment in the de Medici administration and added to the cultural life of the city.<ref> Hibbert, p. 167</ref><br />
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====De Medici and the Peace of Italy====<br />
In the fifteenth century conditions in Italy became more peaceful. In previous centuries war was endemic in the Peninsula. There were conflicts between the city-states and often civil conflicts within them. These indeed led to the rise of many tyrants all over Italy especially, in the 14th century. The De Medici did not like to engage in war and did not want to expand Florentine territory.<ref>Hibbert, p. 156</ref> They favored peace and believed that war was bad for trade. In this, they had a decidedly modern outlook. Cosimo the Elder worked tirelessly for peace in the North of Italy. He sought to establish a balance of power in the region between the main powers and the exclusion of foreign powers such as the French and the Holy Roman Emperor. Cosimo helped to negotiate an end to a series of wars in Lombardy and helped the main players in Italy, Milan, Naples, Venice, and Florence to reach an agreement to respect each other’s territorial integrity. <br />
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Lorenzo, the Magnificent, followed his grandfather’s policies about maintaining a balance of power in Italy. This led Lorenzo and other Northern Italian leaders to negotiate the Treaty of Lodi that brought peace and stability to the North and Central Italy.<ref>Hibbert, p. 118</ref> The de Medici through their policies did much to bring peace and security too much of Italy, and this was crucial for the Renaissance <ref>Miles J. Unger, <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/074325435X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=074325435X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=ae832840e01fbaf68a8af9739f4806f4 Magnifico: The Brilliant Life and Violent Times of Lorenzo de Medici]</i>, (London, Simon and Schuster 2008), p. 134</ref> It is not a coincidence that the cultural zenith of the Italian Renaissance occurred when Florence was stable. Michelangelo, Leonardo, and Raphael produced their most celebrated works when Northern Italy was experiencing an unprecedented peaceful period in the fifteen century. In this way, the de Medici helped to create an ideal environment for the great artists of the era to grow and create peerless works of art. <br />
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====The De Medici and the revival of Greek Learning====<br />
[[File: De Medici One.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Michaelangelo – whose patrons were the De Medici]]<br />
The Renaissance was inspired by the Classical World of Ancient Greece and Rome. However, until the fifteenth century, the Italian humanists only knew of Ancient Greece and the great works of Plato and the other great Greeks through the Romans. Cosimo the Elder helped to introduce Ancient Greek manuscripts and culture into Italy. Cosimo the Elder sought to end the schism in the Christian Church. He helped to negotiate the union of the Catholic and the Orthodox Church that was formalized at the Council of Florence in 1439. This Union ultimately failed, but it was to have a profound impact on the development of the Renaissance. <br />
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The Byzantine Emperor visited Florence in 1493 to ratify the Union, and he was attended by several hundred followers among them the great Neoplatonist philosopher George Gemistos Plethon.<ref> Miles, p. 123</ref> Cosimo had failed to achieve a lasting union between the eastern and the western Church. However, he inspired renewed interest in the works of the Greeks as he patronized several Greek scholars from Byzantium and appeared to have secured some manuscripts that were previously unknown in Florence. In the Byzantine Empire, there were many great works from the Greek past that were unknown in Italy. The city of Florence soon became the center for the study of Ancient Greek culture and Neoplatonism, became very influential.<ref>Hibbert, p. 134</ref> The increasing interest in Greek culture was to direct the Renaissance in new directions and inspired a new generation of writers and philosophers such as Pico Della Mirandola.<br />
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====De Medici as Patrons====<br />
[[File:Medici Two.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Lorenzo the Magnificent]]<br />
All of the de Medici had an interest in the arts in the fifteenth century and art was used to legitimize the family's rule of Florence. The works commissioned by the family often sought to raise the status of the family in the city. They used art to fortify their position in Florentine Society. However, the family was also genuinely fond of art, architecture, and literature. Cosimo was very knowledgeable about architecture and Lorenzo the Magnificent was a connoisseur of paintings and sculptures. <br />
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The Medici’s used their lavish wealth to patronize many of the greatest artists of the time. The family was directly responsible for some of the greatest works in the Renaissance. Cosimo the Elder was the patron of the great architect Bruneschelli, and it was under De Medici orders that he built the great Medici Sacristy in the Church of San Lorenzo. It was Cosimo who ordered the building of the great De Medici Palace with its magnificent paintings by Uccello. It was Cosimo who also commissioned Donatello's, Bronze of David, one of the most influential pieces of sculpture in the period.<ref> Hibbert, p. 134</ref> <br />
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Lorenzo was equally lavish in his patronage of artists and the commissioning of great works of art. He is widely seen as perhaps the greatest patron of the arts in Renaissance Italy, but this view has been challenged in recent decades. He also commissioned works from great artists such as Botticelli, Perugino, Ghirlandaio, and Verrocchio. Moreover, Lorenzo established a sculpture garden at San Marco, where he encouraged the young Michelangelo to study works from the Classical Period. Michelangelo produced his first significant works under the patronage of Lorenzo.<ref>Miles, p 145</ref> Michelangelo formed part of Lorenzo’s household, and he treated artists as the equals of humanist scholars and poets. <br />
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Lorenzo's treatment of articles was unprecedented in Republican Florence, where painters and sculptors had only been ranked as mere tradesmen or common craftsmen.'<ref> Miles, 117</ref> This treatment raised the status of the artists in the eyes of Florentine society and this was to produce an environment where they had more freedom of expression, and this enabled them to produce many great artworks.<ref>Strathern, p 65</ref> Lorenzo not only patronized these great artists but they also patronized many humanists and writers and they all helped to make Florence a leading intellectual center. Ironically, it has been suggested that the de Medici’s lavish expenditure on the arts and buildings led to their financial difficulties from the 1480s onwards, which contributed to their ‘expulsion from the city in 1494.<ref>Miles, p 134 </ref><br />
<div class="portal" style='float:right; width:35%'><br />
====Related Articles====<br />
*[[Why did the Italian Renaissance End?]]<br />
*[[How did the Bubonic Plague make the Italian Renaissance possible?]]<br />
*[[What was the role of the Popes in the Renaissance?]]<br />
*[[What were the causes of the Northern Renaissance?]]<br />
*[[How did the Renaissance influence the Reformation?]]<br />
*[[What was the Borgias contribution to Renaissance Italy?]]<br />
</div><br />
====Conclusion====<br />
The de Medici during their rule of Florence in the fifteen century did much to influence the Renaissance and to enable the great artists, humanists, and writers, to produce their works that have been so influential down the centuries. The family brought stability and peace to the city of Florence. This was crucial in the cultural flourishing in the city in the fifteenth century. The de Medici largely peaceful rule did much to promote the Renaissance in the city. They also in their relations with the other city-states did much to bring peace to North Italy. Then the de Medici was very instrumental in the growing interest in Greek culture and history. <br />
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Cosimo de Medici and his policies promoted, unintentionally, the study of the works of the Greeks. This was to move the Renaissance in new directions, especially under the influence of Neoplatonism. Then there was the patronage of the de Medici; the family directly helped many great artists to produce many new and great works of art. Lorenzo the Magnificent especially helped to raise the status of the artists in Florentine society. By the time of their expulsion in 1494, the family had made a significant contribution to the development of the Renaissance, which has been crucial in the evolution of the modern world. <br />
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====References====<br />
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{{Contributors}}<br />
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Updated May 6, 2019<br />
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[[Category:Italian History]] [[Category:Renaissance History]] [[Category:European History]][[category:wikis]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_dogs_develop_into_pets&diff=13780How did dogs develop into pets2018-11-22T21:17:57Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>Dogs were one of the oldest animals to be domesticated, where they likely were domesticated by at least 15,000 years ago. This shows they have played an important role in the history of human societies. While dogs became domesticated relatively early in complex human societies, their history as pets is generally less clear.<br />
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==Early Use of Dogs==<br />
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Dogs were most likely domesticated in the Middle East, Central Asia, or even China. While it is well known that dogs originated from wolves, as they are still able to mate, indicating their close genetic affiliation, it is not clear which type of wolf may have led to their domestication. One idea is that the Siberian, Eurasian, or Middle East grey wolf or their relatives, although not necessarily a direct ancestor of modern wolves, may have been the first wolf to be domesticated into dogs. In any case, there may have been multiple regions spanning Eurasia where domestication occurred. This suggests that their utility different in the various regions in which dogs were domesticated. The initial use of dogs varied as guard animals or even as a food supply. The fact that they were likely domesticated before agriculture became present in most places also suggests their role in hunting may have been important. In fact, some of the oldest known breeds, such as the Basenji, appear to be related to hunting and possibly guarding, suggesting that most early domestication of dogs favored this specific role. <ref>For more on dog domestication, see: Larson, G., Karlsson, E.K., Perri, A., Webster, M.T., et al. (2012) Rethinking dog domestication by integrating genetics, archeology, and biogeography. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.</i> [Online] 109 (23), 8878–8883. Available from: doi:10.1073/pnas.1203005109.</ref><br />
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While wolves are known as hunters, the reality is they also spend a lot of time scavenging. It is this scavenging behavior that likely brought them close to human encampments. This would suggest that human populations likely noticed a potential symbiotic relationship, where wolf-like dogs could eventually provide protection and help in hunting. Initially, wolves would have been likely seen as a threat, but studies have shown that wolves can be relatively quickly tamed. Within one generation, a wolf born can be more tame and within a few generations wolves can begin to loose their wolf-like qualities (e.g., pointy ears) and begin to be tightly integrated into human societies and even within placed within the house.<ref>For more on wolf qualities useful for dogs, see: James Serpell (ed.) (1995)<i> The domestic dog: its evolution, behaviour, and interactions with people.</i> Cambridge ; New York, Cambridge University Press.<br />
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In East Asia and possibly other regions, dogs as sacrificial animals as well as for their utility in food developed more closely. Very likely dogs were consumed in other regions, but over time many regions stopped using dogs as main food sources.<ref>For more on the history of dogs used as food and sacrifice, see: Sterckx, R. (2015) <i>Food, sacrifice, and sagehood in early china.</i> Cambridge Univ Press.<br />
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==Dogs as Pets==<br />
As wolves-dogs were increasingly utilized for hunting and protection near human camps or eventually settlements, their utility expanded even more with the onset of agriculture. By then, protecting crops and domesticated animals (e.g., sheep and goats) from other humans and animals became an import function. Given that speed, ability to quickly identify threats, and be able to fight back were desirable traits for protection, this made dogs ideal for roles in agricultural societies. However, if dogs were only aggressive, this would mean they could be a threat to the inhabitants of settlements. Thus, what likely occurred is that dogs were trained to identify those they are linked with, through their day-to-day contact, and those who have little connection to them. This made dogs, as they evolved, become better able to differentiate different people and threats. While in the encampment or settlement, the evolving dogs had to be trained for more docile actions. This likely made them more friendly and easier to control. In fact, in nature, wolves have been found to be among the most gregarious animals and they show a high degree of cooperative traits compared to many animals (e.g., their ability to hunt together in packs requires cooperative behavior). These traits likely helped them develop into more friendly breeds, while still retaining characteristics for protection and hunting.<ref>For more on the evolution of pets as dogs, see: Miklósi, Á. (2009)<i> Dog behavior, evolution, and cognition.</i> Oxford Biology. Repr. Oxford, Oxford Univ. Press.</ref><br />
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By historical periods, over 5000 years ago, dogs begin to be shown as more pet-like animals. In ancient Mesopotamia, the goddess Innana was shown as having seven dogs accompanying her. In fact, from Mesopotamia or perhaps Egypt, the first depictions of a dog collar are shown. Dogs were also discussed in various ancient mythology in Mesopotamia, where they served as companions and provided a protective guard. In Egypt, dogs were kept as pets. In fact, with military conflict becoming the norm among early states, we also see dogs serving in the armed forces of countries, presumably as aggressive animals that can protect or attack an enemy. The Egyptian god Anubis', although often shown as a jackal, temples had dog mummified burials, suggesting that dogs also were seen as having an afterlife (Figure 1).<ref>For more on dogs in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, see: Johns, C. (2008) <i>Dogs: history, myth, art.</i> Cambridge, Mass, Harvard University Press, pg. 26.</ref><br />
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In ancient Greece and Rome, dogs have been shown as pets and having a close relationship with their owners (Figure 2). It appears from depictions that dogs make up the most common or among the most common type of pet, while hunting and guarding were still important functions for dogs in these societies. Literature from these societies discuss how dogs would eat from their master's table and the literature discusses the close relationship that dogs formed with humans. It was during the Classical period that likely varieties were developed for their more common household use, such as the small Melitaean dog. Dogs were even buried with masters. There could have been religious function for this, but it also likely reflects that close relationships developed by then.<ref>For more on dogs in ancient Rome and Greece, see: Ed, J.C.J., M. (2007)<i> An Ancient History of Dogs: Spaniels Through the Ages.</i> J. C. Judah, pg. 37.</ref><br />
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[[File:1280px-Monkey and dog mummies, Cairo Egyptian Museum 01.JPG|thumbnail|Figure 1. A mummified dog and monkey found in Egypt.]]<br />
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[[File:3326192330 470c642ec9 b.jpg|thumbnail|Figure 2. One of the oldest "Beware of dog" sign from a mosaic in ancint Pompeii.]]<br />
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==Current Global Use==<br />
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Global use of dogs indicates that many societies see their functions differently. In parts of the world, protection still forms among the most important roles. However, in the West and some affluent Asian states, dogs are mainly seen as pets, although at times they are used in hunting and protection. In the last few hundred years, sometime likely after the Middle Ages, new breeds such as poodles and others that were selected for their looks in particular became more common. This concept of ornamental dogs originated in Western Europe. Cats likely makeup the most common pet in many European and North American societies today. In Africa, South America, the Middle East, and parts of east Asia they are mainly seen as guard animals. In east Asia, dogs are also seen as a food source and in some places are among the most common types of meat eaten.<ref>For more on modern dog breeds and what they are used for, see: Wilcox, B. & Walkowicz, C. (1995) <i>Atlas of dog breeds of the world.</i> Neptune City, NJ; Lanham, MD, T.F.H. Publications ; Distributed in the U.S. to the bookstore and library trade by National Book Network.</ref> <br />
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However, increasing influence of Western culture is beginning to affect more affluent classes even in countries that have traditionally not kept dogs as pets. For instance, in China, India, South America, and Africa, ownership of dogs as pets has increased dramatically. Nevertheless, this has created problems, as many dogs that have been domesticated to have more pet-like qualities are not always well adapted to live in some countries' climates and environment. This could eventually lead to new breeds or selective types of breeds for some locations, particularly very hot countries where many dogs are not well adapted to live.<ref>For more on dogs as pets around the world, see: https://www.petsecure.com.au/pet-care/a-guide-to-worldwide-pet-ownership/</ref><br />
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==Summary==<br />
Dogs have had among the longest histories with humans. This is because they are, in nature, not very large, show a gregarious attitude, and display cooperative traits. However, they are also aggressive and run very fast. These qualities likely made dogs useful in hunting, protection, and even warfare. Over time, their presence in camps and settlements evolved them into pets. In some societies, they were held as holy creatures or at least worthy of an afterlife. In effect, this shows their importance to humans as dogs played an even more important role during the development of agriculture. Interestingly, relatively few societies, even in ancient periods, used dogs as food, indicating that their various traits made them too useful for consumption. Their friendly nature exists in the wild but was likely selected for in a variety of breeds to allow them to easily co-exist in societies. Such traits have helped them to be among the most common pets today.<br />
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==References==</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Why_was_St._Augustine_so_important_in_Christian_History&diff=13779Why was St. Augustine so important in Christian History2018-11-22T21:17:57Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>__NOTOC__<br />
[[File:TolleLege.jpg|left|270px|thumbnail|Augustine's Conversion]]St. Augustine, apart from Jesus Christ and the Apostle Paul, is arguably the most influential figure in the history of Christianity. As both the Bishop of Hippo (located in Northern Africa) and a notorious philosopher, Augustine shaped the doctrines of the Catholic church and created the litmus test for orthodoxy up to and through the Protestant Reformation and beyond. Though it is difficult to summarize Augustine’s major contributions, it is possible to provide the context and consequences of the four major themes in Augustine’s theological and philosophical thought which are still meaningful contemporary Christian discussion. <br />
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It is critical to keep in mind that Augustine was heavily influenced and informed by both the Greek and Latin philosophical traditions. Augustine uses the dialectical tools and ideological framework provided by these traditions to understand and later explain Christian theology. From the Augustinian perspective there is nothing inherently wrong in pagan thought that makes it inadmissible in Christian theology--though useful, it is simply not a full account of the truth.<br />
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===Original Sin===<br />
Many today, whether raised in a Christian environment or not, are familiar with the notion of original sin. This concept refers to the “fall of man” (Adam’s act of disobedience) articulated in Genesis 1, through which Adam and his progeny inherited an unavoidably corrupt and fallen human nature. Augustine is responsible for fashioning this doctrine, though a bleak and under-explored version of it existed prior to his own evaluation. <br />
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One can turn to Augustine’s most famous work, Confessions, to understand his articulation of “original sin.” In it he recounts an experience from his youth when he was with a group of friends and stole pears from a neighboring farm. As he wrestles with his motivations for taking the fruit, Augustine concludes that he had an inordinate desire to take it. In other words, he wanted to do it simply because he knew it was wrong--he enjoyed and relished the evil: “It was foul, and I loved it. I loved to perish. I loved my own error— not that for which I erred, but the error itself.”<ref>Augustine, <i>Confessions</i>, trans. by J.G. Pilkington. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1887.) Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. <http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/110102.htm> II.4.9</ref> This perverse desire (concupiscence), as far as Augustine is concerned, results from the corruption of the will, incurred from the “fall of man.” Man, being made for God should desire what leads him to union with God. He should desire the perfect, the good, the truth. However, man often prefers lesser goods (gratification of personal desires) to greater goods (the love of God) and this is a result of his will not functioning properly. The force of Augustine’s position echoed loudly throughout the church and officially became doctrine in the Council of Carthage (418 C.E.).<br />
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===Grace===<br />
Now, the notion of grace is, though largely informed by his understanding of original sin, not one particular to Augustine. It is a major theme throughout the Pauline epistles and was heavily discussed by the Greek fathers. However, Augustine amplified the discussion of grace in what Christian historians now call the “Pelagian controversy.” The reason this debate is dubbed the Pelagian controversy is that Augustine’s theology of grace, its importance in morality and soteriology specifically, is largely developed through a series of letters to and from another Christian contemporary of Augustine: Pelagius. <br />
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The word grace in Christian theology tends to have a variety of meanings; however, Augustine understands it as an unmerited gift of God’s love and favor. The issue with Pelagius's account of grace is quite simple: he doesn’t acknowledge it. As far as Augustine is concerned, due to post-lapsarian (post-fall) position of man, we are in need of God’s grace to desire and carry out the good. Grace serves as a remedy in many ways to our fallen nature. Without it, mankind cannot act morally nor can he find salvation. Pelagius believed that man was capable, naturally, to desire and carry out the good. Moreover, this ability meant that man was entirely responsible for his own salvation. If he acted well, he was well-deserving of a reward; if he acted poorly, he was well-deserving of punishment. <br />
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Now, this debate with Pelagius was a pivotal moment in Christian discourse because it helped elucidate the importance of grace in the moral life and the very real effects of original sin according to the Christian narrative. Much of the Gospel is predicated on the idea that man is broken and in need of redemption. For Augustine, original sin is the source of the brokenness; grace is the means or restoration. In essence, man cannot save himself. <br />
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===Pagan Virtue===<br />
Further, Augustine re-shaped the way the Western world thought about the ethical life. Augustine famously believed that the virtuous life was exclusively Christian. In order to be ethical, one had to do the right thing and carry it out for the right end (telos).<ref> Gaul, Brett. "Augustine on the Virtues of the Pagans." <i>Augustinian Studies</i> 40, no. 2 (2009): 233-249<br />
</ref> To be a good or virtuous person did not merely mean acting the right way, but acting the right way for the right reasons. And so, the Christian faith effectively becomes the point of departure for the happy life—the necessary teleological criterion for virtue. As Augustine himself asserts: “In Christian times there can be no doubt at all as to which religion is to be received and held fast, and as to where is the way that leads to truth and beatitude.”<ref>Augustine, <i>Of True Religion</i>. trans. J.H.S Burleigh. (John Knox Press:1953), iii.3</ref> Essentially, right belief (or Christianity) becomes paramount in acting well. This view will radically change the trajectory of ethical thought and praxis in the Western world until the dawn of the Enlightenment when both God’s goodness and existence will be questioned. <br />
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===Christian Communion===<br />
In addition to the Pelagian controversy that looms largely over Augustine’s later life, Augustine also persistently argued with another faction of Christians in northern Africa called the Donatists.<ref>Kaufman, Peter Iver. "Augustine, Evil, and Donatism: Sin and Sanctity before the Pelagian Controversy." <i>Theological Studies</i> 51, no. 1 (1990): 115-126.</ref> In short, his rebuke of Donatism is rooted in the dissension they were causing in the church dating back to the year 303 C.E. As Harmless explains, under the Emperor Diocletian Christians faced mass persecution.<ref> Augustine, <i>On Baptism</i>, Book I.xii.18, qtd in Harmless, William. Augustine in His Own Words. (Catholic University of America Press:2010), 254</ref> Not only where many martyred in the name of faith, but several bishops were forced under the threat of death to surrender Christian books and scriptures to be burned. Although many refused to do so, others gave into the demands of the emperor, fearing a brutal death. <br />
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According to the Donatists these acts of betrayal—surrendering the scriptures—were enough to constitute separation from the church. Thus, the Donatists formed their own sect of the Christian faith, which they claimed to be the true church “without spot or wrinkle.” Association with those “unrighteous” bishops meant putting the efficacy of the sacraments at risk. All of this is to say that Augustine’s polemic with the Donatists primarily dealt with their resolve for separation from the Catholics in Northern Africa. Augustine saw this schism as severely wounding the unity within the body of Christ. Thus, Augustine’s condemnation of Donatism was a statement about what it meant to be a Christian: in catholic communion bound by the bond of mutual charity (love). In this way love and unity were virtually inseparable.<ref>Park, Jae-Eun. "Lacking love or conveying love?: the fundamental roots of the Donatists and Augustine's nuanced treatment of them." <i>The Reformed Theological Review</i> 72, no. 2 (August 2013): 103-121.</ref> Even in spite of Augustine’s outrage in regards to their eager schismatic efforts, Augustine urged that the Donatists be treated with tolerance and love. This tone and exhortation would carry over into the Church’s discussion of Donatism in the Council of Carthage (417 C.E.).<br />
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===Conclusions===<br />
As may be easy to see, Augustine was a rather impactful figure in Christian history. He laid the groundwork for the formulation and acceptance of the doctrine of original sin, launched a nuanced discussion on the role of grace in the morality and soteriology, and set the trajectory for Christian ethics and ecclesiology. Augustine is such a formidable thinker that his writings stood, and still stand, as a bulwark of orthodoxy in the Church. It is important to note, though, that Augustine is not a static thinker. His philosophy and theology drastically changed throughout his life. For example, after the Pelagian controversy he became a more radical proponent of predestination, in such a way that departed significantly from his earlier works. That being said, depending on what time period one encounters Augustine, one may be getting a more or less radical version of his thought. This is why there are many various denominations who follow him closely, but have drastically different theological positions. <br />
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===References===<br />
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[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:Religious History]][[Category:Christian History]][[Category:Roman History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_Vatican_II_change_the_Catholic_Church&diff=13777How did Vatican II change the Catholic Church2018-11-22T21:17:55Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>__NOTOC__<br />
[[File:Vatican II Council.jpg|left|270px|thumbnail|Vatican II]]In 1959 Pope John XXIII called for an ecumenical council of the Catholic Church that would later be known at Vatican II. As a result of this council, the Catholic Church would dramatically change or reconsider its stance towards the world, it’s celebration of the liturgy, salvation, and the roles of clergy and the laity. Ending in 1965, the council would engender much debate, and even some reluctancy, by many conservative factions within the Church. <br />
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However, despite the growing pains that resulted from its declarations, it drastically redefined what it meant to be Catholic in the world and evidenced the Church’s desire to speak directly to the modern man. <br />
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===What is an Ecumenical Council?===<br />
Historically, the way that the Catholic Church decides doctrinal debates and moral teaching is through dialogue among church authorities and officials--this is what is traditionally called a council or synod. The Catholic Church distinguishes between two types of councils, ecumenical councils and synods or provincial councils. Ecumenical councils are authoritative while synods or provincial councils are mere discussions that do not retain any authoritative status. The very first ecumenical council was the Council of Nicea (convened in the fourth century) and was mainly a response to what is known in Church History as the “Arian Crisis,” a heretical teaching about the Trinity which purported that Jesus Christ was created by God the Father, verses being con-substantial with the Father.<ref>For more on the Arian Crisis see: Irvin & Sunquist, <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1570753962/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1570753962&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=e2c0001c899f9e94c69afd85c315b12c History of the World Christian Movement]</i>. (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 2008).</ref><br />
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During this council the Nicene Creed as formulated, which is still used and recited during services today. The last ecumenical council happens to Vatican II, the topic of our discussion in this article. In the words of Pope John XXIII, “The major interest of the Ecumenical Council is this: that the sacred heritage of Christian truth be safeguarded and expounded with greater efficacy.”<ref>Pope John XXIII. <i>Opening Address to the Vatican II Council</i>, October 11,1962.</ref>In other words, this council was convened in order to renew and reinvigorate the life of the church and to refine the sacred deposit of faith.<br />
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===The Church in the Modern World===<br />
In <i>Gaudium et Spes</i> (Joy and Hope in Latin), authored in and through the proceedings of Vatican II, the Church spoke explicitly about the current state of modern world, the growth of the secular sphere and the withdrawal from religion. It specified and clarified that the Church as a collective institution is not opposed to science, philosophy, technology or culture as many might perceive religion to be in opposition to these things. Instead, it reaffirmed that She saw these as goods. These goods only become corrupted, said the council, when they in themselves are upheld as man’s highest ends. The council strongly and unabashedly declared that because man was made for communion God and that the goods of science, philosophy, technology and culture would be empty--insufficient when sought as final ends in themselves. <br />
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The Council continues in stating that Church’s mission is to bring Christ to the world. The religious life should inform the political or public life. Being a Christian, a Catholic specifically, means allowing the love of God to radically transform your whole being, not just when one is at home in isolation: “This split between the faith which many profess and their daily lives deserves to be counted among the more serious errors of our age. Long since, the Prophets of the Old Testament fought vehemently against this scandal and even more so did Jesus Christ Himself in the New Testament threaten it with grave punishments. Therefore, let there be no false opposition between professional and social activities on the one part, and religious life on the other.”<ref>Vatican Council, Edward H. Peters, and Gregory Baum. <i> Second Vatican Council</i>, “Gaudium et spes: The Constitution on the Church in the Modern World” in The Documents of Vatican II, ed. Walter M. Abbott (New York: Guild Press, 1966), #41.</ref> All in all, the council’s message was one of not retreating from the world, but going forth into it with vigor, ardor and eagerness to share the Gospel.<br />
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===The Clergy and the Laity===<br />
Perhaps one of the greatest revivals of Vatican II was restoring what the council designated as “baptismal dignity.” The Church re-articulated that by virtue of the sacrament of baptism each member of the faithful incurred a priestly, prophetic, and kingly dignity. The priestly dignity is in reference to a call to holiness, the prophetic to a call to preach the word of the Gospel, and the kingly to be leaders in the Church. While this was not new, the council re-established that holiness, preaching the word, and leading were not only duties conferred unto the clergy, affirming that the laity shouldn’t be passive recipients of the sacraments, but active participants in the Church. <br />
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In many ways this served as a correction to clericalism that had been historically rampant in the Church and as a call to action to the monotonous church-goers that were not living out the Christian life in the secular world. It also reinforced that the laity were not merely meant to be served by the church, but they needed to reciprocally serve The Church in the world.<ref>Second Vatican Council, “Lumen gentium: Dogmatic Constitution on the Church” in <i>The Documents of Vatican II</i>, ed. Walter M. Abbott (New York: Guild Press, 1966).</ref><br />
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===Liturgical Changes===<br />
Perhaps some of the most startling changes in the life of the church were those pertaining to the celebration of the Mass. Even if Catholics were not following the progress and discussions of the council or reading the declarations it produced, they would be immediately faced with the changes to the liturgy every Sunday in the pews. <br />
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Prior to the close of Vatican II every Catholic Mass was conducted in Latin. As one might suspect, many Catholics, especially in countries with high amounts of poverty and low literacy rates, did not know Latin or have the opportunity to learn it. Thus, in order to make the Mass more relatable, inclusive, and open to active participation, the Catholic Church decided Mass should be held in the vernacular, or the language that the people of the area spoke. So, if you were in Chicago, Illinois you would hear the Mass in English. If you were in Paris, France you would hear it in French, etc. Other changes included affording women the ability to take a more active role in the liturgy, primarily in allowing girls to be altar servers (this was previously only an opportunity afforded to males). Further, the laity were given the chance to serve as eucharistic ministers, and lectors (roles formerly performed by members of the clergy only). Though there were many other changes in the liturgy produced, these were merely the most impactful and revolutionary.<br />
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===Considerations in Soteriology===<br />
[[File:470px-Karl Rahner by Letizia Mancino Cremer.jpg|left|270px|thumbnail|Karl Rahner]]<br />
One other main theological evolution of the council was its consideration of salvation outside of the Catholic Church. Prior to Vatican II it had long been the position of the Church that participation in the sacrament and belonging to the Catholic communion were essential for salvation. Though the Church still claims it is the medium through which God chose to extend salvation to mankind, it very explicitly suggested that salvation for those not belonging to the Catholic Church was certainly possible. Karl Rahner’s theology of the “Anonymous Christian” was particularly influential in the development of this doctrine. <br />
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According to Rahner, it is entirely possible that an individual not belonging to the Church explicitly could be part of the church through the way they live according to their conscience and the demands of natural law. However, Rahner explicitly contends this theory is only applicable in cases where an individual is ignorant of the Gospel, not in cases where it is merely rejected. This approach is known as Constitutive Inclusivism. It states Christ and the Church are necessary for salvation, but asserts the possibility of God saving someone who does not belong to the Church.<ref>For more on Karl Rahner’s "Anonymous Christian" see: Kilby, Karen. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0415259657/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0415259657&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=0d088c2e3ed6d290f974ef0915bd33e5 Karl Rahner: Theology and Philosophy] </i>. (London: Routledge, 2004).</ref><br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Again, these points discussed above are merely scratching the surface of the changes implemented by Vatican II. Many of its promulgations are still in the process of being realized in parishes and dioceses around the globe. However, Vatican II stands as the largest, and perhaps most surprising, ecumenical councils convened in the Church’s history.<br />
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===Related DailyHistory.org Articles===<br />
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*[[How were texts selected for the New Testament?]]<br />
*[[Why did the Reformation fail in Renaissance Italy?]]<br />
*[[What was Pope Julius IIs contribution to Renaissance Italy?]]<br />
*[[Cult of the Virgin Mary by Michael Carroll]]<br />
*[[How did the Reformation change Christianity?]]<br />
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===References===<br />
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[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:Religious History]][[Category:Christian History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Why_did_the_Russian_Romanov_Dynasty_collapse_in_1917&diff=13775Why did the Russian Romanov Dynasty collapse in 19172018-11-22T21:17:54Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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__NOTOC__<br />
[[File: 1106px-Family Nicholas II of Russia ca. 1914.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Tsar Nicholas II and his Family 1913]]<br />
The Russian Revolution of 1917 was perhaps the most important event in the twentieth century. It saw the world’s first Communist government and it led to a wave of communist inspired revolutions around the world and ultimately the Cold War. The Revolution is often shown to be inevitable because of the unequal nature of Russian society and its undemocratic political system. However, the Russian Revolution was not unavoidable and was a direct result of the impact of the First World War on Russia.<br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
Russia was and is a vast and diverse country with a huge multi-ethnic population. The Russian Empire was an autocracy, where effectively the Tsar’s will was the law. Tsar Nicholas II ‘indulged in a fantasy of absolute power’ and he believed that he had been appointed by God to the throne.<ref>Figes, Orlando. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/014024364X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=014024364X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=06c5bfa36690a28acda82d3d2a108211 A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891-1924]''(Pimlico, 1996), p. 23</ref> The Tsarist government repressed any signs of organized dissent and as a result there were many political prisoners. Russia was changing in the early years of the twentieth century. It was rapidly industrializing and the country’s economy was growing fast.<ref>Figes, p. 86</ref> <br />
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A new industrial class of workers was emerging and society was becoming increasingly urbanised. However, this class was impoverished and lived and worked in appalling conditions. The majority of the population were still peasants that often worked the land for wealthy landlords and endured lives of great hardship. The industrial workers and the peasants did not benefit from the economic expansion in anyway. Russia’s economic growth did create a new middle class. However, this class was excluded from the political system and resented the Tsar’s restrictions on its political and personal freedoms. Only the aristocracy and the elite supported the Tsarist government and only out of self-interest.<br />
<br />
====1905 Revolution====<br />
[[File:The_Russian_Revolution,_1905_Q81553.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Barricades manned by workers of Schmidt factory in Moscow, Dec. 1905]] There was widespread discontent in the Russian Empire. Since the 1890s, various terrorist organizations had waged a violent campaign against the Tsar’s regime. There were many radical political parties active in the country, including the Bolshevik party. <ref>Wood, Alan (1993). ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0415307341/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0415307341&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=c7ddf62267e62ec99e78cd6a10e4245b The Origins of the Russian Revolution, 1861-1917]''. London: Routledge</ref> Many people believed that Russian was ripe for a revolution. In 1905 Russia was routed by the Japanese Empire in a brief war in North East Asia. This was a national humiliation and the Tsar and his government became very unpopular. <br />
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Immediately, those who were unhappy with the existing system began to agitate for change. When Cossacks violently broke up a demonstration in St Petersburg, with many deaths, the country saw widespread revolts. The Tsar faced losing power and made significant concessions to secure his position. He granted a constitution and allowed for the creation of an elected Parliament the Duma, all of which limited his powers.<ref>Figes, p. 65</ref> This managed to placate the revolutionaries and order and calm was restored. The Tsar promised reforms, including land reform and vowed to respect the constitution. In the years following Nicholas II failed to implement meaningful reforms, although there were some ‘real and positive changes.<ref>Lincoln, W. Bruce. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0671557092/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0671557092&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=500d3127c72c2c8c8d421483668da68a Passage Through Armageddon: The Russians in War and Revolution, 1914–1918]''. (New York, 1986), p. 4.</ref> The economy improved after 1905 and the Tsar began to win back some support. However, radicals were unhappy with the situation and plotted revolution, either in Russia or in exile, such as Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik Party of Communists in Switzerland.<br />
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====World War I====<br />
[[File:1200px-Russian_Troops_NGM-v31-p372.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Russian troops moving to the front lines in 1917]]<br />
In 1913 there were lavish public celebrations of the 300th anniversary of the Romanov Dynasty’s rule in Russia. The Tsar used the anniversary to demonstrate that he was appointed by God to rule ‘all the Russia’s.<ref>Figes, p. 117.</ref> That year the Tsar and his family were very popular and it seemed to the revolutionaries that there would never be a revolution. However, after the assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand, Europe was plunged into war. Russia was allied with France and Britain against Germany, Austro-Hungary and Turkey. Russia invaded Prussia in 1914, but after some initial success was defeated. It also fought campaigns against the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empire. <br />
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The war on the Eastern Front became bogged down in trench warfare. Russia endured very heavy casualties and it placed a great strain on its resources. Poverty increased and food supplies became scarcer and the lives of many ordinary people became intolerable. The Tsarist government became very unpopular. A scandal also made the Tsar and his family hated by many. A Siberian holy man, called Rasputin gained great influence with the Tsar and his family, as he claimed to have the ability to heal the crown prince’s haemophilia. This brought him ‘immense power and prestige at Court’ but it scandalized many.<ref>Figes, p. 31.</ref> By 1917, the Russian people were war weary and strikes became very common. The Tsar refused to enter into peace negotiations with the Central Powers, despite several defeats on the Eastern Front and the suffering of the ordinary people.<br />
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====February and October Revolutions 1917====<br />
[[File:19170704_Riot_on_Nevsky_prosp_Petrograd.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Troops open fire on Russian protesters in 1917.]] <br />
By February 1917 the situation was unbearable for the average Russian soldier and citizens. A series of strikes were staged in St. Petersburg and the Tsar ordered the army to break the strikes. Instead the army mutinied and began to fraternize with the strikers.<ref>Robert Service (2005). ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/067401801X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=067401801X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=1f1aedc66cb1d26dbbb2b33138bcf078 A history of modern Russia from Nicholas II to Vladimir Putin]''. Harvard University Press</ref> The authority of the Tsar simply ebbed away and he was forced to abdicate. A Provisional Government that claimed to represent the workers and the peasants took power. This became known as the October Revolution.<ref>Malone, Richard (2004). ''Analyzing the Russian Revolution''. Australia: Cambridge University Press. p. 67.</ref><br />
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However, following the collapse in the Tsarist government many local committees known as Soviets, took power all over Russia. They often refused to recognize the authority of the Provisional Government. Many of the Soviets were dominated by the Bolsheviks or Communists who were loyal to their exiled leader Lenin. The Provisional government wanted to continue with the war and this made it very unpopular with many especially the Soviets. Radical groups like the Bolsheviks stated that they wanted to bring an end to the war. They also made themselves very popular by promising food to the people and the redistribution of land. Their slogan was ‘Peace and Bread’. The Provisional Government was fast losing control of the situation. Russian soldiers began deserting and the army was close to defeat. However, the leader of the Provisional Government, Alexander Kerensky refused to compromise. This was to prove fatal.<br />
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Lenin organised his Bolshevik forces and decided to stage a revolt that would seize power in Petrograd (formerly known as St Petersburg). On the night of October they seized the Winter Palace and ousted the Provisional Government. The event became known as the October Revolution. The next day the world’s was amazed to hear of the first Communist government in history. However, it was only after a brutal civil war that resulted in millions of deaths that the Communist were able to take full control of Russia.<br />
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====Conclusions====<br />
The Russian Revolution was caused by many factors. Including an autocratic Tsarist regime that was unwilling to change with the society. That made itself unpopular with its repressive policies and scandals. However, this did not make the Russian Revolution inevitable. The catalyst for the revolution was the First World War. It accentuated the tensions in Russian society and unleashed forces that Romanov regime could not control. The suffering people and the common soldiers grew impatient and demanded immediate change and above all peace. The failure of the Tsarist regime to end the war resulted in the collapse of the Romanov Dynasty.<br />
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====References====<br />
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{{Contributors}}<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:Russian History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:World War One History]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_climate_change_influence_ancient_Chinese_societies%3F&diff=13776How did climate change influence ancient Chinese societies?2018-11-22T21:17:54Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>[[File:F8bc126e4916174fb46b10.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Figure 1. Villages such as Banpo reveal an emerging food production economy that revolved around climate evolution.]]__NOTOC__<br />
Climate does not only sometimes push societies to leave their major cities, which some call collapse, but it also helps societies adjust to a new normal, where food production and even tastes begin to modify based on climate. This is evident in China, where ancient China often did not resemble more recent periods in regards to climate and environmental conditions. Nonetheless, these changes have enriched and brought different layers of social change on Chinese society that have influenced modern China. We can see that modern societies are sometimes composed of layers of different past social but also environmental change that forges new social identities.<br />
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<br />
====Rise of Chinese Complex Societies and Climate====<br />
During the long Neolithic period in China (from around 8500-2000 BC), as agriculture began to develop, different types of societies and food production practices formed that focused on millet, in western and central China, and rice, which became more common in central and eastern China. In central China, in particular, evidence indicates shift between millet and rice, where millet is a more hardy crop that can be cultivated in drier periods. In other provinces, there are shifts between rice cultivated in flood agriculture and mixture of using rice and millet. Both taste and climate-induced changes are likely co-occurring in the record, where communal and household-based strategies are also shifting in response to social and climate change that co-occurs. Many of these changes are apparent in central China because it is a region prone or more vulnerable to relatively minor shifts in the climate. Until recent period, millet is seen as the food one can use in periods of stress and drought in China, although now in some quarters millet is a more fashionable food than rice (Figure 1).<ref>For more on food production and shifts in Central China, see: Weisskopf, A., Deng, Z., Qin, L., & Fuller, D. Q. (2015). The interplay of millets and rice in Neolithic central China: Integrating phytoliths into the archaeobotany of Baligang. <i>Archaeological Research in Asia</i>, 4, 36–45.</ref> <br />
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Early Bronze Age China, at around 2200 BC, was characterised by widespread flooding according to legend. Yu the Great, a legendary ruler, was purported to help manage the great flooding that occurred at this time. There is climatic evidence, that by the 4th millennium BCE and going into the 3rd millennium, there were shifts to the monsoon rainfall patterns that agriculture would have become more dependent on. Winter monsoons began to wane in this period but less predictable rainfall patterns may have resulted, which could have led to greater instances of flooding where rainfall amounts would vary more greatly from season to season rather than occurring in more predictable patterns. Water management, at this time, began to utilise a series of earthworks, dams, and other irrigation features that likely attempted to mitigate the uncertainty and volatility associated with rainfall. Excess rainfall could be stored or forced into runoff to avoid catastrophic flooding. This likely helped areas such as along the Yellow River become more controllable and promote settlement along this river valley with greater population concentrations. This has been suggested as helping to give rise to the increased social complexity seen at the end of the third millennium BCE and going into the early dynasties of the 2nd millennium BCE. Effectively climatic shifts could have promoted settlement and increased social complexity as societies adapted to better control and manage less predictable rains.<ref>For more on the rising social complexity and its relationship to water and rainfall, see: Brooke, J. L. (2014). <i>Climate Change and the Course of Global History</i>. West Nyack: Cambridge University Press, pg. 295.</ref><br />
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====Chinese Dynasties and Empires====<br />
[[File:King Kang of Zhou.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Figure 2. King Kang of Zhou was seen as bringing a prosperous period to China, where favourable climate conditions likely helped.]]<br />
During the Shang Dyansty (1600-1000 BCE), researchers have stated the climate became generally warmer. However, there were periodic cooling and likely drier conditions in eastern China. At around 1100 BC, the Shang became weaker as they had to deal with more harvest failures. However, the Shang could have adapted to this and may have withstood such change. Rather, the Zhou, who conquered the Shang and who lived west of the Shang, may have invaded as they felt their societies faced greater threats due to cooling conditions. In effect, the invasion and bellicose nature of the Zhou could be attributed to changing conditions that led to more difficult harvests for them. The concept of the Mandate of Heaven, which formulated that a Chinese dynasty should maintain order in the world, including natural order affecting farming and the environment, may have developed at this time as a way to legitimise rulers. It could also be used to blame rulers as climate conditions became more difficult, where rulers of China should upkeep the Mandate of Heaven. This could have happened as the Zhou justified their rule due to the failings of the Shang, as conditions became more difficult. After the cooling at around 1100 BCE, climate likely returned to more favourable conditions and the Zhou may have become the long-lived dynasty in Chinese history in part due to more favourable conditions. The Zhou portrayed themselves as bringers of stability, where during the 1st millennium BCE climate conditions did generally become stable.<ref>For more on the Shang and Zhou rivalries, see: Marks, R. (2012). <i>China: its environment and history</i>. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield.</ref> <br />
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Nevertheless, long-term warmer conditions did last until about 350 CE, covering nearly eight dynasties and ending around the Six Dynasties period. During warmer periods, citrus, such as oranges, may have made their way to China and began to be incorporated into diets. Subtropical herbs and spices were also likely introduced in periods when warmer conditions prevailed, as these plants were more easily grown in northern regions that allowed the major centres of China, such as the city of Chang'an in the Han Dynasty. After 350 CE, much colder conditions became evident in northern China, with much harsher winters. This may have led to the development of ice houses for the first time, which allowed better preservation of food and allowed it to be kept longer. This also likely led tastes in food to change back away from the subtropical foods that could have been grown in other parts of China (Figure 2).<ref>For more on food and technology related to climate, see: Chambers, F., & Ogle, M. (Eds.). (2002). <i>Climate change: critical concepts in the environment</i>. London ; New York: Routledge.</ref><br />
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====More Recent Climate Change====<br />
Overall, over the last two thousand years the climate has continued the long-term drier and colder conditions in parts of eastern China, where there is evidence this has led to greater evidence for more periodic locust, famine, and drought occurrences. There has also been higher incidents of epidemics when flood conditions become evident, presumably as bacteria thrive better in warmer and moister conditions.<ref>For more on the relationship between climate and epidemics and different events, see: Tian, H., Yan, C., Xu, L., Büntgen, U., Stenseth, N. C., & Zhang, Z. (2017). Scale-dependent climatic drivers of human epidemics in ancient China. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>, 114(49), 12970–12975. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1706470114</ref> <br />
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Climate also affected politics over the last two thousand years. The Ming dynasty, lasting until 1644, began to experience greater difficulties in the 16th and early 17th centuries as records show. Peasant rebellions, perhaps triggered by poor harvests, led to the government being defeated and ultimately collapsing. In earlier periods that were more favourable climatically, a military farming system ensured the government's troops were well supplied and provisioned. However, that system began to fail already in the 16th century. During that time, greater military expenditure was required, showing that more money from the central government was needed to ensure the military's readiness. By the early 17th century, the government was in crises as peasants were unable to pay their taxes, which were heavy, to support the increased military expenditures. This loss of revenue was compounded by failed harvests that affected the peasants and government. In effect, a system of military provision had collapsed, forcing the burden on peasants, who themselves were overtaxed and ultimately they revolted against the government that had created the system in the first place.<ref>For more on the Ming dynasty, see: Zheng, J., Xiao, L., Fang, X., Hao, Z., Ge, Q., & Li, B. (2014). How climate change impacted the collapse of the Ming dynasty. <i>Climatic Change</i>, 127(2), 169–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1244-7</ref><br />
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====Summary====<br />
Climate has played an important role in Chinese history, from affecting food taste to changing society and leading to rebellion. Climate does not always lead to social collapse, but it can lead to a chain reaction of events that have momentous change. This includes dynasties being created or disease affecting the population. What ancient China shows us is that climate has been a key background element in the evolution of societies, a lesson which we can take to heart in our own modern world.<br />
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====References====<br />
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[[Category:History of Science]][[Category:Chinese History]][[Category:Wikis]][[Category:Environmental History]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_Are_the_Origins_of_the_Sasanian_Empire&diff=13774What Are the Origins of the Sasanian Empire2018-11-22T21:17:53Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>[[File: Ardashir_I_Coin.png|300px|thumbnail|left|Coin of the First Sasanian King Ardashir I (AD 224-240)]]__NOTOC__<br />
In the ancient world, three dynasties of Persian speaking peoples created vast empires across central Asia and the Near East: the Achaemenid (559-330 BC), the Parthian (ca. 247 BC-AD 224), and the Sasanian (AD 224-651). Although each of the Persian empires shared certain cultural attributes and a fair amount of geographical space, each dynasty was also unique and important in its own way. Stretching from the Indus River in the east to the Euphrates River in the west, and from the Oxus River in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south, the Sasanian Empire was every bit as large and powerful as its two predecessors. <br />
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The Sasanians were known for following and codifying many of the Achaemenid and Parthian cultural and religious traditions, such as the rituals of the Zoroastrian religion in the collection of religious texts known as the <i>Avesta</i>. Like the Parthians before them, the Sasanians fought the Romans, and later the Byzantines, for control of Mesopotamia and ultimately lost a war for their very existence against the Islamic Arab armies, which signaled the beginning of Islam’s ascendency in the region and the end of the ancient Near East. <br />
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But long before Islam overtook Persia, the Sasanians fought a war against the Parthians for control of the region. The Sasanians achieved their victory through a combination of superior leaders, tactics, and organization and despite the violent overthrow of the Parthian Dynasty, the transition from Parthian to Sasanian rule was incredibly seamless. The early Sasanian kings pursued a program of continuity with the Parthian and Achaemenid dynasties in their use and acceptance of religion, language, and history, which ultimately made the dynasty strong enough to resist outside forces.<br />
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====The Rise of the Sasanians====<br />
[[File: The_Sasanian_Empire.png|300px|thumbnail|left|Map of the Sasanian Empire]]<br />
The Sasanian Dynasty originated in the region of Persis in southern Iran near the city of Istakhr. <br />
Unlike many royal dynasties, which are usually named for the first king in the royal line, the Sasanian Dynasty was named for a man called Sasan, who was the guardian of the sanctuary of the Persian goddess Anahita. Although the Sasanian Dynasty came chronologically just after the Parthian in Persian history, the former’s homeland was much closer to the Achaemenid homeland, which probably played a role in their later claims of Achaemenid descent. <ref> Brosius, Maria. <i>The Persians: An Introduction.</i> (London: Routledge, 2010), p. 139</ref> Ethnically and culturally speaking, despite coming from different origins, the Sasanians and Parthians both spoke the Middle Persian language and shared a number of other religious and cultural affinities. <br />
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The manner in which the Sasanian came to power was quite sudden and complete. The first Sasanian king, Ardashir I (reigned AD 224-240), led an army of his Sasanian tribesmen to face the last Parthian king, Artabanus IV (ruled AD 213-224), in an epic battle in the region of Media on April 28, 224, which would become known as the Battle of Hormuzjan. The battle was chronicled by the late second/early third century Roman historian, Cassius Dio, who referred to Ardashir as “Artaxerxes.”<br />
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“But the situation in Mesopotamia became still more alarming and inspired a more genuine fear in all, not merely the people in Rome, but the rest of mankind as well. For Artaxerxes, a Persian after conquering the Parthians in three battles and killing their king, Artabanus, made a campaign against Hatra, in the endeavor to capture it as a base for attacking the Romans. He actually did make a breach in the wall, but when he lost a good many soldiers through an ambuscade, he moved against Media. Of this country, as also of Parthia, he acquired no small portion, partly by force and partly by intimidation, and then marched against Armenia. Here he suffered a reverse at the hands of the natives, some Medes, and the sons of Artabanus, and either fled, as some say, or, as others assert, retired to prepare a larger expedition. He accordingly became a source of fear to us; for he was encamped with a large army so as to threaten not only Mesopotamia but also Syria, and he boasted that he would win back everything that the ancient Persians had once held, as far as the Grecian Sea, claiming that all this was his rightful inheritance from his forefathers.” <ref> Cassius Dio. <i>Roman History.</i> Translated by Earnest Cary. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1954), Book LXXX, 3-4</ref><br />
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Before he defeated the Parthians, though, Ardashir I essentially encircled them by conquering everything around Mesopotamia, slowly moving his army from east to west. <ref> Brosius, p. 140</ref> Once the conquest was complete, the king had to ensure a smooth military and administrative transition from Parthian to Sasanian rule.<br />
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Although influenced by the Parthian army in its reliance on cavalry, Ardashir I transformed the powerful Sasanian army into a well-organized fighting force of up to 80,000 men. Companies of 100 men were the numerically smallest level of organization. Ten companies comprised a regiment and ten regiments formed a division. <ref>Brosius, p. 186</ref> Essentially there was great continuity from the Parthian period in the Sasanian army’s reliance on cavalry, but the structure was much more complex.<br />
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====Cultural Continuity with the Achaemenids and Parthians====<br />
[[File: Naqsh_i_Rustam.jpg|300px|thumbnail|left|Relief at Naqsh-i-Rustam Depicting Ardashir I Being Crowned by the God Ahura-Mazda]]<br />
Despite the war that overthrew the Parthian Dynasty, there was a seamless cultural transition from the Parthian to the Sasanian Empire. Ardashir I and his successors used royal epithets made popular by the Achaemenids and Parthians and were devout followers of the native Persian religion of Zoroastrianism. Ardashir I and his successor, Shapur I (reigned 240-272), centralized the Zoroastrian religion, essentially making it a “church,” by assigning men to make sure the proper rituals were being carried out and by codifying the rituals and myths in the <i>Avesta</i>. The high-priest of Sasanian Zoroastrianism was known as the <i>herbad</i>, whose responsibility it was to make sure the religion was being observed properly throughout the empire. The herbad under Ardashir I and Shapur I, Tanser, made sure that all of the minor kings and governors in the Sasanian Empire kept the holy fire temples and knew the history of their religion. In a letter to a minor king Ardashir I overthrew but allowed to keep nominal power, Tansar explained some of his responsibilities and the piety of his king.<br />
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“The chief herbad, Tansar, has received the letter of Gushnasp, prince and king of Tabaristan and Parishwar. . . He has studied each point, good and bad, and is pleased with it. . . The truth is that after Darius (III) each of the ‘kings of the peoples’ [i.e. the Parthians’ vassal kings] built his own [dynastic] fire temple. This was pure innovation, introduced by them without the authority of the king of old. The King of kings has razed the temples, and confiscated the endowments, and had the fires carried back to their places of origin. . . In the space of fourteen years. . . he thus brought it about that he made water flow in every desert and established towns and crated groups of villages. . . Good order in the affairs of the people affects him more than the welfare of his own body and soul. Whoever considers this achievements . . . will agree that since the power of the world’s Creator arched this azure sphere the world has not known so true a king.” <ref> Boyce, Mary, ed. and trans. <i>Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism.</i> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), pgs. 109-10</ref><br />
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The early Sasanian kings also fostered cultural continuity in non-religious ways, although like most pre-modern societies nearly every aspect of Sasanian culture was connected to religion in some way. One of the ways in which the early Sasanian kings linked themselves to the Achaemenid kings was by leaving inscriptions near the Achaemenid monuments, such as Naqash-i-Rustam and the Ka’ba Zardusht. <ref>Brosius, p, 162</ref> The Ka’ba Zardusht, which was an Achaemenid era tower, became the favored place of Sasanian royal inscriptions. Like the Achaemenid kings hundreds of years earlier, the Sasanian kings left multi-lingual inscriptions on the tower, but instead of writing their messages in Old Persian, Akkadian, and Elamite as the Achaemenids had done, the Sasanians wrote their texts in Parthian, Middle Persian, and Greek. <ref> Brosius, p. 145</ref> Interestingly, the later Sasanian kings did not follow the tradition of leaving inscriptions near Achaemenid monuments, <ref> Boyce, Mary. <i>Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices.</i> (London: Routledge, 2001), p. 118</ref> perhaps because they believed cultural continuity with earlier Persian dynasties was no longer important.<br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
The Sasanian Empire was the third and final Persian empire of the pre-modern world. It came to power forcefully, through the conquests of Ardashir I, but its origins can be traced back much earlier. The Sasanians employed an incredible amount of administrative, religious, and cultural continuity with the previous Parthian and Achaemenid dynasties during the reigns of their first few rulers. Although the Sasanians overthrew their Parthian predecessors, they looked to them and the Achaemenids for inspiration and guidance, which ultimately helped them solidify their somewhat precarious political position early in the dynasty. <br />
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====References====<br />
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[[Category: Ancient History]] [[Category: Ancient Persian History]] [[Category: Iranian History]] [[Category: Late Antiquity]] [[Category:Wikis]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Presidential_Leadership_Top_Ten_Booklist&diff=13772Presidential Leadership Top Ten Booklist2018-11-22T21:17:52Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>[[File:At_the_Margins.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|<i>At the Margins</i>]]<br />
Presidential leadership and its qualities are often assumed or imposed by the culture of the given age. While the Constitution and laws of the United States clearly lay out how the executive branch is suppose to act, there are many cases of interpretation and precedent involved in the powers and actions presidents have taken. Perhaps an example of this are the wars and conflicts the United States has fought over the last 70 years without formally declaring war. The following provides a top ten booklist of presidential leadership. <br />
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====Presidential Leadership====<br />
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1. Edwards, G.C. (1990) <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0300048998/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0300048998&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=9725ab522c921664cc147a6496f7de17 At the Margins: Presidential Leadership of Congress]</i>. New Haven, Yale Univ Press.<br />
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Often, one of the most contentious relationships presidents have is with Congress, even if their own party rules both the Senate and House of Representatives in the legislative branch. The book by Edwards is now slightly dated but is still relevant in an era where contentious politics between the legislative and executive branches happen before our eyes on a nightly basis. It demonstrates how presidents have tried to take leadership and influence Congress to act on their agendas. <br />
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2. Azari, J.R., Brown, L.M. & Nwokora, Z.G. (2013) <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1438446004/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1438446004&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=2a1ccda395f3d6ab34aabaff9ea164ef The Presidential Leadership Dilemma: Between the Constitution and a Political Party] </i>. Albany, State University of New York Press. <br />
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Partisan politics in particular has, in the last few presidents, created difficulties for presidents to enact their agendas. Key challenges include how a president has, at least historically, often tried to be portrayed as a "national leader" for all Americans while still, in reality, act as the leader of a political party. The rhetoric given to the public often tries to combine election results with their agendas and platforms so that the winning party tries to display a form of mandate, while often in presidential politics various other factors may be at play as to why certain individuals or parties win power. Examples of this include the 2008 election, where Obama's victory was in party fueled by anti-Bush sentiment, including his own appeal, that had taken over the country. Nevertheless, this allowed Obama and the Democrats to enact a series of measures that have subsequently become highly contentious with conservatives and parts of the public.<br />
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3. Herring, P. (2006) <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B074VFDYZC/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B074VFDYZC&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=bf69c370d7e690439d86157bee617f97 Presidential Leadership: The Political Relations of Congress and the Chief Executive]</i>. Library of liberal thought. New Brunswick, N.J, Transaction Publishers.<br />
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Historians have debated what the nature of the presidency was intended by the founders of the United States. Alexander Hamilton explained the presidency as a needed "energy" that helped to propel the legislative branch to action. In effect, the presidency was to be the engine of government rather than the government or just another branch. More than checks and balances, these branches were meant to act and influence the other. Since Hamilton's time, the presidency has often varied between more centralized or even weak power. Perhaps what was not envisioned in the early United States is the degree to which partisan politics would sculpt policy.<br />
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[[File:Presidential_Leadership.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|<i>Presidential Leadership</i>]]<br />
4. Ragone, N. & Velshi, A. (2011) <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1616142375/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1616142375&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=9afe441659974f3989b23b637c08e45e Presidential Leadership: 15 Decisions that Changed the Nation]</i>. Amherst, N.Y, Prometheus Books.<br />
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Presidential administrations have often been remembered, and at least partially defined historically, by single acts or decisions. For Washington, it was the Whiskey rebellion, for Truman it was his decision to support the was in Korea and subsequently fire Douglas MacArthur, while for John Kennedy it was the decision to reach the moon before the end of the 1960s. While other actions are remembered by these and other presidents, specific speeches and decisions have defined the nation through the experiences or agendas put forth. What the book demonstrates is that beyond laws enacted or agendas pushed, it was key choices made that defined the country and presidency.<br />
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5. Dunn, C.W. (2007) <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B008VRR8G8/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B008VRR8G8&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=40701d998d18ed3c10644ceed9a2c230 The Seven Laws of Presidential Leadership: An Introduction to the American Presidency]</i>. Upper Saddle River, N.J, Pearson/Prentice Hall.<br />
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Dunn has analyzed presidents throughout US history and has concluded there are seven fundamental laws that drive presidential leadership, including its perception by the public and other politicians. These are the law of history, the law of rhetoric, the law of theory, the law of culture, the law of character, the law of politics and the law of management. Some of these laws may have changed in their importance but they are still critical to how Americans often remember and value their presidents.<br />
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6. Edwards, G.C. (2012) <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0691154368/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0691154368&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=96cf9b7831b799001ce0e62a7e0ffb99 The Strategic President: Persuasion and Opportunity in Presidential Leadership]</i>. Princeton, N.J.; Woodstock, Princeton University Press.<br />
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There are two major areas the president has to work with during his term. These are Congress and the public. Each is a different dynamic and one could be used against the other. Effective presidents have been able to navigate both areas through persuasion, rhetoric, effective leadership style, and using (or even manipulation of) public opinion.<br />
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7. Nye, J.S. (2013)<i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/069116360X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=069116360X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=2f35ccf9dd6cf7b1ccaaae208d13b235 Presidential leadership and the Creation of the American Era]</i>. Richard Ullman Lectures. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press.<br />
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The twentieth century saw the rise of the United States as a global superpower. That rise was navigated by many presidents using their decisions and ethical understanding. Often, as the United States asserted its authority in the global stage, presidents have attempted to frame that rise as an ethical one that serves the United States and the wider world's interests.<br />
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8. Goethals, G.R. (2015) <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1138814253/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1138814253&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=713fc3a0023f941fa007bd215f8d1f8f Presidential Leadership and African-Americans: ‘An American Dilemma’ from Slavery to the White House]</i>. Leadership : research and practice series. New York, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
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One great issue facing the United States has been race, particularly in regards to African Americans. Ever since the founding of the country, presidents have often attempted to balance different interests while also coming to terms with racial prejudice and shifting public attitudes. While some presidents took very bold decisions, including pushing the 13th Amendment in the Constitution for ratification, others created a more hostile environment for African Americans in times of great social and political change.<br />
[[File:Elusive_Victories.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|<i>Elusive Victories</i>]]<br />
9. Meenekshi Bose (ed.) (2014) <i>U.S. Presidential Leadership at the UN, 1945 to Present</i>. White House Studies. Hauppauge, New York, Nova Science Publisher’s, Inc.<br />
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An arena of presidential leadership has been the United Nations. The United States was a founding member of the United Nations and strongly advocated its position in shaping post-World War II global politics. However, since that time, domestic interests have often collided with interests by the UN body. Presidential actions concerning the UN have largely been, in the last two decades, about balancing United States global leadership and domestic or even political pressure at home.<br />
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10. Polsky, A.J. (2012) <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/search/ref=as_li_qf_sp_sr_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=dailyh0c-20&keywords=Elusive%20victories:%20The%20American%20Presidency%20at%20War&index=aps&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=ur2&linkId=ff8332613600ce608ac5971c9d953175 Elusive Victories: The American Presidency at War]</i>. Oxford ; New York, Oxford University Press.<br />
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Wars have been stages for the president to lead the country. In the Civil War, Lincoln had to convince the public that the Civil War was in the nation's interest even as the effort went badly and he only just managed to do that with some timely battlefield victories. In recent wars, including Vietnam, Afghanistan, and Iraq, victory has been harder to define and the public's expectation has shifted where the wars were harder to argue as being part of the nation's interest. Conflicts have largely had negative effects on presidential powers in the last few decades and more risk than benefit, damaging public opinion and limiting the larger domestic and international agendas presidents have attempted to press.<br />
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[[Category:Expert Booklists]] [[Category:Booklists]] [[Category:United States History]] [[Category:Military History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Did_the_Congress_of_Berlin_create_a_more_unstable_Europe&diff=13773Did the Congress of Berlin create a more unstable Europe2018-11-22T21:17:52Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>{{Mediawiki:Kindleoasis}}<br />
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[[File:Berliner_kongress.jpg|thumbnail|350px|left|Congress of Berlin meeting to resolve the Russo-Turkish War]]<br />
The Congress of Berlin was a gathering of the representatives of the Russian Empire, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Germany, the great powers in Europe and the Balkan states; Greece, Serbia, Rumania and Montenegro. and the Ottoman Empire. The Congress was hosted by the German Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck. The aim of the Congress was to resolve territorial and other disputes in the Balkans after the Ottoman Empire’s defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-8. It also sought to ease tensions in Europe, because other great powers feared that Russia was growing too strong and was upsetting the continent’s balance of power. The Congress also sought to restrain Pan-Slavic nationalism. The Congress actions ultimately sacrificed long term stability in favor of a short term easing of political tensions. <br />
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==Background==<br />
[[File:The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak,_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.jpeg|thumbnail|left|300px|Russian and Bulgarian troops defending against Turkish troops at Shipka Pass during Russo-Turkish War.]] <br />
The Ottoman Empire was in terminal decline and since the start of the 19th century it had been in retreat in the Balkans, which it had once dominated.<ref>Taylor, Alan J. P. (1954). ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0198812701/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0198812701&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=c2ae7f82135cff7e46bbe904e05eea4d Struggle for the Mastery of Europe 1848–1918]''. UK: Oxford University Press. p. 241</ref> However, it still retained control over large areas of the southern Balkans. The region was very unstable. The population of the Balkans was made up largely of Slavs and many of these wanted the creation of a single Slavic state in the region, this ideology was known as Pan-Slavism. The nationalist ideology of Pan-Slavism was very hostile to the Ottoman Turks, but generally support Russian influence in the Balkans, as it was considered a Slavic nation. Russia considered itself to be the defender of the Christian Slavs against the Muslim Ottomans.<ref>Taylor, p. 167</ref> <br />
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In 1876, the Bulgarians rebelled against Ottoman rule. The Turkish Ottoman forces brutally crushed the revolt with great loss of civilian life. This led to Russian intervening on behalf of their fellow Slavs and Christians, the Bulgarians. From 1877-8, the Russians fought a war against the Ottomans, mainly in the Balkans.<ref>Taylor, p.256.</ref> The Russians, who were supported by Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania, inflicted a series of defeats on the Turks. By 1878, the Turks had been forced out of almost all of their Balkan provinces. The Russian and their allies signed a Treaty with the Ottomans, in 1878. The terms of this treaty meant that Russia and its allies had confined the Turks to a narrow band of territory in the Balkans. To many observers it seemed likely that the Russians would go on to occupy Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Glenny, Misha (2000). ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140233776/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0140233776&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=7d718a56ddf01826d0a4c1651ea89a59 The Balkans, 1804-1999: Nationalism, War and the Great Powers]''. Granta Books, p. 78.</ref><br />
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==Concert of Europe==<br />
[[File:713px-Alexander_II_of_Russia_photo.jpg|thumbnail|290px|Tsar Alexander II of Russia]] <br />
The outcome of the war greatly alarmed the other European powers. The decisive Russian victory in the Balkans had important implications for all the other European powers. The German and Austro-Hungarian Empires were worried that the war had encouraged Slavic nationalism and they both had large Slavic minorities in their realms.<ref>Glenny, 134</ref> If there was a strong Slavic state created in the Balkans, it could foster Slavic nationalism among their own populations and could lead to instability or even the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in particular. The British and the French were also alarmed by the growing power of the Russians in the Balkans. The governments in Paris and London welcomed Russia’s victory but were worried that it could lead to it dominating the Balkans. <br />
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In particular, they were worried about Russian ambitions in the Bosporus. This is one of the world’s most strategic waterways and it connects the Black Sea with the Mediterranean. The Russian Tsar Alexander II had ambitions, to capture Constantinople. This would have allowed the Russian navy access to the Mediterranean and this was seen as a threat to French and British interests. Britain in particular, believed that if Russia was to dominate the Bosporus Straits it would threaten its ‘sphere of influence’ in the Mediterranean.<ref>Glenny, 78</ref> The British made clear that they would not allow the Russians access to the Bosporus. London made clear it would go to war with Russian over the issue.<ref>Albertini, Luigi (2002) ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00C7BUVMW/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B00C7BUVMW&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f093fef231322b9f1fb77d2daa94f34e The Origins of the War of 1914: European relations from the Congress of Berlin to the eve of the Sarajevo murder].'' Oxford University Press, p. 119.</ref><br />
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==Congress of Berlin==<br />
[[File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1990-023-06A,_Otto_von_Bismarck.jpg|thumbnail|250px|Otto von Bismarck in 1881]]<br />
Otto von Bismarck, along with the Austrian Chancellor persuaded the other great powers to attend a meeting in Berlin, to discuss the Balkans and to solve any differences by diplomatic means. Germany sought to portray itself as an ‘impartial arbitrator in the disputes in the Balkans’.<ref>Taylor, p. 231.</ref> In fact, it had its own agenda, to maintain the informal alliance between it Austro-Hungary and Russia, the so-called League of the Three Emperors. In order to maintain peace in Europe, Bismarck sought to convince other European diplomats on dividing up the Balkans in a way that would prevent future instability. In June 1878, the representative of the Great European powers met and with the Balkan powers and the Ottomans discussed the future of the region. After several weeks of increasingly tense negotiations a series of agreements were arrived at and they were to form the basis of the Treaty of Berlin. The main points in the Treaty were:<br />
#Recognition of Romania, Montenegro and Serbia as independent states.<br />
#Bulgaria to secure more autonomy within the Ottoman Empire.<br />
#The strategic province of Macedonia was to remain part of the Ottoman Empire<br />
#Bosnia and Herzegovina were to become part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.<ref>Taylor, p. 241.</ref><br />
<br />
The Congress of Berlin was a victory for the British- they had denied the Russian Empire the opportunity to dominate the Balkans and hence the strategic Bosporus. Turkey was able to retain many of its European provinces despite Germany and Austria were relieved that no Pan-Slavic state under Russian influence would emerge in the Balkans. Russia was outraged, it had decisively defeated the Turks, and had apparently received nothing. The Pan-Slavic nationalists were also angered as their dreams of a strong unified Slavic state was also denied.<ref>Albertini, p. 202</ref><br />
<br />
==Legacy of the Congress==<br />
The Congress achieved Bismarck's aim and ensured that the instability in the Balkans would not result in a general war between the great powers in Europe. However, over the long term it was a disaster for Europe.<ref>Glenny, p. 67.</ref> Prior to the Congress, there had been a level of stability in Europe, even though relations between France and Germany were still tense after the 1870-1 war. Russian was angered by the outcome of the Congress. Eventually she ended her loose alliance with Germany and Austro-Hungary. While, the Germans and Austrians had succeeded in their objectives at the Congress, but they lost an ally. This forced a reshuffling of alliances in Europe. This did much to establish the alliance system in Europe which directly contributed to the outbreak of the First World War. More importantly, the Congress failed to address the Pan-Slavic nationalists' demands. By failing to address demands, Europe was beset with instability in the Balkans for decades. The Congress' failure to address the claims of the Slavs in the Balkans was to result in wars and terrorism in the region until the First World War and after.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
The Congress of Berlin was very important, in that it helped to establish the outline of the modern Balkans and it kept Russian from expanding further into that region and beyond into the Ottoman Empire. However, it led inadvertently to the development of a series of international alliances that was ultimately result in two rival power blocs on the continent. it failed to placate the demands of the Pan-Slavic Nationalists. Indeed, Pan-Slavic nationalism was a contributing factor to the outbreak of the First World War. When a Serbian Pan-Slavic nationalist assassinated Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, this was to prove the catalyst for the First World War. The decisions made at the Congress was to leave the Balkans fundamentally unstable for several decades to come and even contributed to the wars in the region in the 1990s. <br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[How did Mussolini become Prime Minister of Italy?]]<br />
*[[Social History of American Medicine Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[Gilded Age/Progressive Era History Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[How did Vladimir Lenin Rise To Power?]]<br />
*[[Origins of World War One - Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
</div><br />
{{Mediawiki:British History}}<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]][[Category:Military History]][[Category:19th Century History]][[Category:Diplomatic History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:British History]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_Saint_Valentine%27s_Day_Develop&diff=13771How Did Saint Valentine's Day Develop2018-11-22T21:17:51Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>__NOTOC__<br />
[[File:Saint Valentine by Bassano.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Saint Valentine as depcited by Bassano.]]<br />
Saint Valentine's Day is widely celebrated in the Western world as a day of love and romantic relationships. While this tradition does go far back and has connections to early Christian traditions, there are also more complex links with pre-Christian holidays that were likely changed or modified into Saint Valentine's Day traditions. <br />
<br />
====Early History====<br />
<br />
The story of Saint Valentine does have a direct link to one or several early saints called Valentine (Figure 1). Many traditions have developed around this holiday, and most likely there were multiple traditions that were integrated as original records were lost. One of those traditions state that Valentines was a priest in Rome martyred for defying Claudius II, who had decreed his soldiers would not marry. He may have tried to marry soldiers in secret and when the emperor found out he had him executed. The heart may have been a symbol of love between the pair and this could have become a love symbol. Other scholars, however, dispute that such an edict would have ever been done by an emperor. Another story states Valentine tried to help Christians escape and he was imprisoned after he was caught. He eventually may have fallen in love with his jailor's daughter and he sent the first "valentine" to her. He may have greeted her by saying "Your Valentine" and this is where using valentine as part of the Valentine Day greeting may have originated. Another idea is that Valentine of Terni, who was a Christian bishop, who was martyred in 273 during persecutions. There is a legend that he married a young pagan soldier with a young Christian woman. On hearing his wife was dying, the soldier converted to Christianity so that he could be bounded with her forever and then he subsequently died shortly after his wife's death.<ref>For more on the early saints associated with Valentine's Day, see: Sabuda, R. (1999). <i>Saint Valentine</i>. Aladdin. </ref> <br />
<br />
We do know that Saint Valentine's Day was a feast day that likely celebrated a Christian saint and had developed when Pope Gelasius in the late 5th century CE declared that February 14th would be the feast day associated with the saint. However, the motives for this and stories associated with Saint Valentine suggest there may have been some earlier influences on the tradition. What we do know is that many early Christian traditions and feast days were often created to be similar to pagan festivals, as it helped early converts in transitioning to the new religion. Saint Valentine's Day may have not been different. The Lupercalia celebrations were a festival held on February 15th in honor of fertility and dedicated to the Roman god Faunus. The celebration may have also focused on the mythical founding of Rome by Romulus and Remus and how they were raised by a she-wolf. Goats would be sacrificed and the blood from goats, along with the hide, would be dragged and slapped or sprinkled on crops and women. This would bring women and crops luck in fertility. One legend stated that in this celebration, single women and men were sometimes paired and these matches often ended in marriage. However, some authors dispute its association with love between people. While it is possible that Pope Gelasius by the end of the 5th century CE saw Lupercalia as un-Christian and his declaration of Saint Valentine's Day on February 14th may have been intended to replace the pre-Christian holiday by combing some of the ideas of Lupercalia with a saint story, this is also uncertain.<ref>For more on how the Saint Valentine's traditions may have evolved between pre-Christian and later Christian traditions, see: Pogue, C. (1996). T<i>reasury of celebrations</i>. Kelowna, B.C.: Northstone, pg. 132</ref><br />
<br />
====Later Developments====<br />
[[File:Court of Love in Provence in the Fourteenth Century Manuscript of the National Library of Paris.png|thumbnail|left|Figure 2. Depiction of the Charter of the Court of Love that may have influenced Valentine's Day traditions. ]]<br />
In Saxon England, young men or boys would often give women of their affections small gifts that included gloves. The fact that Saint Valentine's Day is near spring and foreshadowed it could have made it more festive in association with love. In some regions, Saint Valentine's Day began to be associated with spring since it was often the time people began to rework in their fields in preparing for the planting season. However, these events did not associate the day directly with love. Although the Roman and other stories associated with Saint Valentine could have connected the day with love, other later traditions may have further added to this idea. Geoffrey Chaucer, the famous early English author, wrote that the time was associated with birds beginning to pair themselves. In effect, it was a time of pairing and matches and associations of this to humans may have begun around that time.<ref>For more on early Medieval traditions of Saint Valentine's Day, see: Diehl, D., & Donnelly, M. (2011). <i>Medieval celebrations: your guide to planning and hosting spectacular feasts, parties, weddings, and renaissance fairs</i> (2nd ed). Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books.</ref> <br />
<br />
<dh-ad/><br />
<br />
In 1400, Charles VI of France commissioned <i>Charter of the Court of Love </i>, which was a charter where on February 14th contests would be held related to love songs and poetry readings about love (Figure 2). While the accuracy of the story of this are not certain, what we do know is by the 15th century people did begin to wish their beloved valentine greetings. The developments around this time made have made chivalrous acts between maidens and single men and Valentine's Day associated. The Duke of Orléans, who was captured in battle against the English, wished his wife a sweet valentine. In England, Valentine's Day also began to be associated with gifts of sweets for children. It was during the Medieval period that young people put the names of the person they wanted to marry on their sleeves, which has come to us in the expression of putting your heart on your sleeve. In the 15th century, cards may have begun to be created with notes of affection, although they did not become popular until much later. By 1600, Shakespear's Hamlet has Ophelia discuss her love for Hamlet in association with Valentine's Day.<ref>For more on late Medieval traditions and the growing popularity of Valentine's Day then, see: Skarmeas, N. J., & Venturi-Pickett, S. (1999). <i>The Story of Valentine’s Day</i>. Nashville, Tenn.: Candy Cane Press.</ref><br />
<br />
By the 17th centuries, Valentine's day began to be popular among friends and lovers among different classes. At this point, people began to exchange tokens of affection and notes with each other expressing their feelings. Charles II of Sweden in the 18th century began to associate affection with flowers and it was possibly at this time that flowers were used with Valentine's Day. The single rose at this time may have come to symbolize romantic love.<ref>For more on Charles II of Sweden, see: Moore, K. (2011). <i>Roses Are Red ...: a Book for Lovers</i>. London, UK: Michael O’Mara.<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
====Modern Celebrations====<br />
Modern Valentine's Day has been strongly influenced by American traditions that first derived from the mid-19th century. Esther A. Howland in the 1840s began selling cards and gifts that contained real lace, ribbons and colorful pictures. It was also this time that women began to be more strongly associated with Valentine's Day relative to men, where marketing began to focus more on them and today they constitute about 85% of Valentine's Day sales. It was around 1900 that Valentine cards were popularly produced throughout Europe and began to replace letters and notes that lovers would exchange. Valentine cards often contained secret compartments that the women of affection would have to find, which may have contained additional messages or gifts of affection. The British chocolate company of Cadbury began to create decorated boxes of chocolates for Valentine's Day in the 1860s and that has since made chocolates another association with Valentine's Day.<ref>For more on how modern Valentine's day traditions started, see: Lee, R. W. (1984). A history of valentines. Wellesley Hills, Mass.: Lee Publications.</ref> <br />
<br />
In the modern world, it is China and South Korean that have taken the mantel of spending the most on Valentine's Day. In other countries outside of the West, many of them had feasts or festivals associated with love. These customs have often been replaced or sometimes integrated along with Western Valentine's Day traditions such as sending chocolates and flowers to a beloved. For instance, in Wales, St. Dwynwen's Day was the day to celebrate lovers. This falls on January 25th. Aspects of this tradition are sometimes combined with February 14th in Wales or people simply celebrate the Welsh holiday with Western style Valentine's Day celebrations.<ref>For more on how Valentine's Day is celebrated around the world today, see: Williams, V. (2017). <i>Celebrating life customs around the world: from baby showers to funerals</i>. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.</ref><br />
<br />
====Summary====<br />
Valentine's Day is still an uncertain holiday in terms of its origins. Many stories exist around it and there might be some truth in each of the stories. The influence of pre-Christian traditions are also possible, and likely given many ancient feasts existed that revolved around fertility and love. The modern date may have been a Christian way to syncretize these ideas with the Christian faith. Whatever the case might be, later developments such as flowers associated with love and chocolates as presents to a beloved developed more clearly in the modern era. By the 19th century, commercialization of Valentine's Day had already become evident in the United States with the development of cards and decorative products.<br />
<br />
====References====</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=The_Bronze_Age_Economy_and_Trade_Top_Ten_Booklist&diff=13770The Bronze Age Economy and Trade Top Ten Booklist2018-11-22T21:17:50Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>__NOTOC__<br />
[[File: The Amarna Letters.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|''The Amarna Letters'' by William Moran]]<br />
During the Bronze Age, the economies of the ancient Near East became linked to broader ancient Old World in Central Asia, India, and Europe through long-distance commerce. This trade helped facilitate emerging patterns of consumerism, entrepreneurial spirit, and the spread of the alphabet and other social ideas. The economy, however, seems alien to us as it was complex and had many aspects to it, spanning from elites in palaces and temples to common urban and nomadic households. <br />
<br />
'''''The Temple Economies'''''<br />
<br />
1. Lipiński, Edward, and Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven (1970- ), eds. 1979. ''[http://www.powells.com/book/orientalia-lovaniensia-analecta-5-6-state-and-temple-economy-in-the-ancient-near-east-i-ii-i-9789070192037?partnerid=41307&p_ti State and Temple Economy in the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the International Conference]'' Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 5-6. Leuven: Departement Oriëntalistiek.<br />
<br />
While we often think of temples as being places of religion and nothing more, the reality is temples were foundational and if not critical to economic activity for many Bronze Age cities. Temples were places that held the identity of cities, where the local gods would be housed and worshiped. However, temples also controlled lands and had many people working for them, sometimes acting like land managers and renting or leasing their lands to be farmed. In addition, temples also controlled production of things, including beer and textiles. This required a lot of labor and temples were able to control this labor process, forming what amounted to be factories of workers. <br />
<br />
'''''Palaces and Trade'''''<br />
2. Moran, William L. 1992. ''[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0801867150/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0801867150&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=B5PMBUA4W4EX36CB The Amarna Letters]'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.<br />
<br />
The book covers an interesting history in the Near East during the 14th century BC, when the city of Amarna briefly became the capital in Egypt during the reign of Akhenaten. This period saw a large number of correspondences between vassals and kings with the Egyptian court in the common language of Akkadian. The international correspondences between the kings of Babylon, Assyria, Mitanni, Hittites, and Cyprus demonstrate the gift exchanges and sending of goods between palaces and governments during this time.<br />
<br />
==Households and Daily Economy==<br />
<br />
3. Goddeeris, Anne. 2002. <i>[http://www.powells.com/book/economy-and-society-in-northern-babylonia-in-the-early-old-babylonian-period-ca-2000-1800-bc-9789042911239?partnerid=41307&p_ti Economy and Society in Northern Babylonia in the Early Old Babylonian Period (ca. 2000-1800 BC)]</i> Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 109. Leuven ; Sterling, Va. : Leuven: Peeters ; Dép. Oosterse Studies.<br />
<br />
The book looks at different aspects of the Babylonian economy, including on how key day-to-day aspects functioned. The emphasis is on how households managed their affairs, from loans, to marriages, litigations, and inheritance issues. Aspects of ownership and land, including in agriculture or other resources owned are presented. <br />
<br />
[[File:Daily_Like_in_Ancient_Mesopotamia.jpg|thumbnail|''Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia'' by Karen Rhea Nemet-Najat]]<br />
4. Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. 1998. ''[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0313294976/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0313294976&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=TR5CVIC2F7RGRKBV Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia]''. The Greenwood Press “Daily Life through History” Series. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.<br />
<br />
The book deals with a wide range of topics about Mesopotamian society; however, one critical element is how households, including different gender and age roles, functioned in the larger economy and society of ancient Mesopotamia. We see that women, at least in Babylonia, were able to control land and wealth, including slaves. However, in other parts of Mesopotamia, particularly in northern Mesopotamia, it was more conservative and women held less power. This book provides knowledge on how people affected or were affected by the larger forces of the economy and larger society. <br />
<br />
5. Porter, Anne. 2011. ''[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1107666074/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1107666074&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=2XMA4JR7C3OWZR57 Mobile Pastoralism and the Formation of Near Eastern Civilizations: Weaving Together Society]''. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press.<br />
<br />
Nomadic pastoralism made a critical contribution to the Near East economy in the Bronze Age. Often tribal groups would create social connections, through marriage or blood ties, with urban dwellers. This gave urban dwellers and nomads the opportunity to either become nomadic or an urban dweller, while also helping to create social links critical for trade and exchange. Nomads often carried items across the Near East, such as textiles, while they also utilized goods found in cities such as agricultural products. This symbiotic relationship allowed both types of lifestyles, urbanism and nomadism, to thrive.<br />
<br />
<dh-ad/><br />
<br />
==Trade Colonies==<br />
<br />
6. Barjamovic, Gojko. 2011. ''[http://www.powells.com/book/a-historical-geography-of-anatolia-in-the-old-assyrian-colony-period-9788763536455?partnerid=41307&p_ti A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period]''. CNI Publications 38. Copenhagen: Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Near Eastern Studies, University of Copenhagen : Museum Tusculanum Press.<br />
<br />
This book covers the Old Assyrian trade colonies, which dominated central Anatolia in the late 3rd and early 2nd millennium BC. The book covers the geography of key colony sites and discusses the nature of trade across the geography, with caravans of textiles, silver, gold, and other commodities being traded. This period is critical to understanding how private households setup in colonies in foreign places and through multiple generations of families they maintained a long-distance trade connection that catalyzed commerce in northern Mesopotamia and Anatolia.<br />
<br />
7. Larsen, M.T. 1967. ''Old Assyrian Caravan Procedures''. PIHANS 22. Amsterdam: NINO.<br />
<br />
This is a classic book that describes best how trade caravans function in the Old Assyrian Period (late 3rd and early 2nd millennium BC), specifically the prices of commodities like wool and silver, itineraries of travel, and the types of investment that went into the trade. The Old Assyrian caravans helped defined what private enterprise looked like in the ancient Near East during the Bronze Age. We see network of families that navigated the politics of the Bronze Age to trade items across vast distances using donkey to carry the load. The trade ultimately linked Central Asia with Anatolia, exchanging tins, wool, textiles, gold, and other products.<br />
<br />
==The Ports and Seafaring==<br />
<br />
8. Wachsmann, Shelley. 2009. ''[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1603440801/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1603440801&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=DZ4DDGBBPQETX35D Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant]''. 2. print. Ed Rachal Foundation Nautical Archaeology Series. College Station, Tex: Texas A & M Univ. Press.<br />
<br />
Seafaring made a major contribution to the Bronze Age economy in the Near East and broader Mediterranean. In addition to trade, seafaring also incorporated aspects of piracy and war that also formed aspects of the Bronze Age seafaring economies. Ships were designed to accommodate a variety of activities, including moving cargo or for speed for raiding. This book shows the types of shipping and their role in the Bronze Age Mediterranean. <br />
[[File: Seagoing_Ships_and_Seamanship_in_the_Bronze_Age_Levant.jpg|thumbnail|''Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant'' by Shelly Wachsman]]<br />
9. Steel, Louise. 2013. ''[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0415537347/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0415537347&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=3NTXDSRSTYYIEQJJ Materiality and Consumption in the Bronze Age Mediterranean]'' Routledge Studies in Archaeology v.8. New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
The Middle and Late Bronze Ages were ages of consumerism in many respects. We see heavy use of wine, olive oils, bronzes, perfumes, and other luxuries. The ports along the Levant, such as Byblos and Ugarit, played critical roles in trade network that brought luxury goods to a wide consumer market and also provide the produce of the region to other areas. While this had a benefit in commerce, this also provided the mechanism for the spread of the alphabet and intermingling of Near Eastern and Greek/Aegean ideas. Consumerism began to be more than simply something for the elites but the masses, what we might call the middle class, began to be active participants.<br />
<br />
==International Trade==<br />
<br />
10. Cline, Eric H. 1994. ''[http://www.powells.com/book/bar-international-591-sailing-the-wine-dark-sea-international-trade-and-the-late-bronze-age-aegean-9781407304175?partnerid=41307&p_ti Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea: International Trade and the Late Bronze Age]'' Aegean BAR International Series 591. Oxford: Tempus Reparatum.<br />
<br />
The Late Bronze Age (c. 1500-1200 BC) was a period of international trade relations between the Mediterranean world and the Near East. The trade connected and saw the exchange of goods from Central Asia to the middle Mediterranean. The nexus of this trade was the Levantine coast where ships moved luxury goods such as ivory, perfumes, copper, tine, bronzes, glass, precious stones, wine, oils, and other objects. The Uluburun shipwreck is an example of the types of ships and contained the types of cargo exemplary of this trade.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Booklists]] [[Category:Bronze Age History]] [[Category:Ancient History]][[Category:History Booklists]][[Category:Expert Booklists]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
{{Mediawiki:Ancient Greece}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_Art_Propagate_Slavery_in_19th_Century_America&diff=13768How Did Art Propagate Slavery in 19th Century America2018-11-22T21:17:49Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>__NOTOC__<br />
[[File:ridefor liberty.jpg|thumbnail|left|350px|"A Ride for Liberty," Eastman Johnson, 1862.]]<br />
The Antebellum period in America gave rise to political tension focusing on the issue of slavery. Politicians, large planters, orators, and activists engaged in heated and often violent debates as to the merits of “owning” a human being. The political, social, and economic angles were argued with each side offering its own spin on the topic. The importance of art as propaganda cannot be omitted when discussing Antebellum America. Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1858 in an effort to illuminate the horrors of slavery. Nearly two decades earlier; however, Edward William Clay’s 1841 drawing, ''America'', was a response to the increased abolitionist movement in the North. Clay’s intent was promote the idea that slavery was good for slaves. The significance of this piece however, is not in the meaning itself; rather the importance lies in Clay’s intended audience. America attempted to convey a message to abolitionists and working-class members of the North---both black and white---that the “peculiar institution” of slavery was preferable to eking out a living in northern factories.<br />
<br />
== Meaning of the Drawing ==<br />
[[File:americacolor.jpg|thumbnail|left|350px|''America," Edward William Clay, 1841.]]<br />
On its surface, ''America'' is a well-drawn depiction of the conditions under which slaves lived in 1841.<ref>Edward Williams Clay, ''America'', 1841, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. For further information regarding the work of Clay, see the Library of Congress website, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3b3616/.</ref>The primary meaning of this drawing is that slaves were content with their living conditions and that slave owners were magnanimous in their concern for their slaves’ well-being. The slave figures in the drawing are shown smiling and dancing; conveying the message of happiness and satisfaction. The slave owner, who has removed his hat in the presence of his slave, expresses deep concern for his elder slave and vows to do all in his power to address his needs. The overall theme of the picture is that slaves were well cared for, happy with their lives, and had no fears regarding their futures. The secondary meaning is quite different.<br />
<br />
Through his art, Clay created a sign; a symbol that made the statement, “slavery is good for slaves.” To be a successful propagandist, Clay needed an audience, as a sign without a signifier is useless. Clay’s intent was to show the working-class citizens of the northern states that slavery was not only good for slaves, but was preferable to the manner in which people of the North lived. This depiction was published in a magazine of the period---''Harper’s''--- and was therefore directed at an audience. Without an audience who held preconceived or opposing notions regarding slavery, the drawing had primary meaning only to the artist. Clay’s target was an audience composed of northern, working-class citizens. <br />
<br />
== Conditions in the North ==<br />
[[File:homelesskids.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Homeless children sleeping in 19th century New York City.]]<br />
Factory workers in the northern United States did in fact work under harsh conditions for meager wages. Employers in Antebellum America offered no medical or retirement benefits to workers. Each employee was responsible for his own well-being and that of his family. For most workers this meant feeding, housing, and clothing their families with a pittance of a wage. The work days were long and strenuous and mainly consisted of six day work weeks. Old age and illness forced most to take that last small step into poverty. The conditions under which these people lived contrasted significantly with those portrayed by pro-slavery propagandists. The message conveyed in Clay’s piece was echoed sixteen years hence by Virginia writer, George Fitzhugh. The author penned, “The Blessings of Slavery” in 1857 to assert his belief that “‘Negro slaves of the South are the happiest, and, in some degree, the freest people in the world.’”<ref>George Fitzhugh, “The Blessings of Slavery,” (1857), quoted in Eric Foner, ''Give Me Liberty!: An American History'', vol. 1, 2nd ed. (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2009), 390.</ref>He believed that workers in free society were in fact themselves “slaves” of the factories. Looking at Clay’s drawing, it is easy to see why this propaganda may have had its desired effect. Each individual character of the picture depicts contentment. The surroundings and people, coupled with the attached text paint a picture of a joyous and unburdened life.<br />
<br />
Clay portrays the surrounding landscape as clean and inviting. The grounds are free of trash and clutter and the cabins appear as warm and solid structures. He, of course, was well aware of the conditions under which people lived in densely populated urban cities. The tenements, which mainly comprised the immigrant and working class sections of cities such as Boston and New York, were shoddily built. The crowded, garbage filled streets were busy with activity and littered with vagrants and transients. Families of six and eight people were packed into one-bedroom flats that were cold fire traps. It was to those people whom Clay hoped to speak. For they were the people who were toiling fifteen hours a day yet were still cold and hungry.<br />
<br />
<dh-ad/><br />
<br />
Clay’s slaves were depicted as the opposite of the reality endured in the cities. The drawing presents the audience with happy slaves dancing on a sunny day. Hale and hearty, they are the embodiment of good nutrition and adequate rest. A healthy, barefooted child sits on the warm earth in a clean and well-fitting dress. The white woman, presumably the slave owners wife, shields her eyes with a parasol; indicating a warm and sunny climate. Again, this is in stark contrast to the all-too-real conditions faced by factory workers in the North. Workers in Chicago’s packing houses or Lowell’s factories endured frigid winters and sparse rations. Their children often faced serious illness due to poor nutrition and lack of medical care. The adults were too exhausted at the end of a work day to engage in dancing and singing. They were alone in the effort to support their families contrary to what Clay wanted one to believe about slaves.<br />
<br />
Though Clay’s concept is conveyed through a drawing, he supplements the significance with the use of text. The highlight of the piece is the fictional dialogue between the elder slave and his “massa.” He bestows the blessing of God upon the white man for feeding and clothing him and for the assurance that he will be well cared for in sickness and old age. The “massa,” in turn, betrays his stoic exterior by professing his compassion for his property. With benevolence and sincerity, he vows that “if a dollar is left” he will care for and provide comfort to “these poor creatures.” Succinctly put, slaves of the South had a benefactor or guardian while the workers of the North were left to their own devices. This summarizes the message of the entire piece: slavery is good for slaves and those of free society can never understand the “community of interest” that is shared between slaves and their owners.<ref>Fitzhugh, “The Blessings of Slavery,” in Foner, 390.</ref>A message such as this is conveyed as much through what is not presented by Clay as through what is shown to the audience.<br />
<br />
== Reality ==<br />
[[File:slave back.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Gordon, 1863.]]<br />
As it is not the purpose of this essay to debate whether slavery was good or bad, it is sufficed to say that Clay’s depiction is not accurate. Slaves did in fact work under grueling conditions and the watchful eye of an overseer. Their cabins were often merely cold and dark shacks and their nutrition was less than healthful. A slave did not receive the courteous sign of respect of a white man removing his hat in the presence of a black man. Slaves did not dance and sing in the middle of the day when their master approached. Their clothes were ill-fitted and though they tried, were unable to be kept clean. Conditions such as these were on par with those of free society; the difference of course being the word, “free.” <br />
<br />
Gordon, a slave who escaped from a Louisiana plantation in 1863, successfully reached a Union camp near Baton Rouge. He was photographed and given a complete medical examination. Gordon’s photograph attests to the harsh and inhumane punishments suffered by slaves. The scars on his back speak volumes regarding the inaccuracy of Clay’s drawing. Further, slave owners did not address the question of why slaves became fugitives. If, as Clay asserts through his art, slaves were satisfied with their station in life, why did they risk their lives to leave? Gordon was certainly not the only person to receive such treatment. Clay’s drawing was more effective in its omissions than in what it actually depicted.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
The intended significance or message put forth by Clay, was not just that slavery was good for slaves; rather, the “peculiar institution” in and of itself was superior to the economic institutions of the North. In order to attain his communication goal, Clay needed an audience comprised of individuals with views opposite to those depicted in the drawing. As with all pieces of propaganda, Clay attempted to communicate his agenda not only as something positive, but something superior. For something to be superior, it must be superior to something else. In this case, Clay compared societal institutions. He was not weighing the positive or negative effects of slavery ''vs'' a free society; he leaves that for his audience. However, by portraying his belief that slavery is a positive institution he attempted, by omitting certain aspects, to sway the views of his opponents. <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]] [[Category:Civil War]] [[Category:African American History]][[Category:United States History]] [[Category:19th Century History]] [[Category:Art History]]<br />
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{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Gender_in_Early_America_Top_Ten_Booklist&diff=13769Gender in Early America Top Ten Booklist2018-11-22T21:17:49Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>[[File:A_Midwife's_Tale.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|<i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0679733760/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0679733760&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=a818f98524c020e5e923f1b310482750 A Midwive's Tale]</i>]]<br />
Most of us are familiar with a narrative of colonial America that focuses on the actions of our "Founding Fathers." But what of our "Founding Mothers"? This booklist compiles ten works that explore gender in colonial North America and provide an important lens through which we can view some of the formative events in our shared history. These books are listed in no particular order and explore topics from the daily and otherwise mundane like in Ulrich's ''A Midwive's Tale,'' to race and slavery in Brown's ''Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, & Anxious Patriarchs,'' and Morgan's ''Laboring Women''. These books explore concepts of citizenship as well as biological reproduction and power. <br />
<br />
1. Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0679733760/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0679733760&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=a818f98524c020e5e923f1b310482750 A Midwive's Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785-1812],'' (Vintage Books, 1990). <br />
<br />
This book is a classic. In it, Laurel Thatcher Ulrich contextualizes the "exhaustive, repetitious dailiness" of Martha Ballard's life. Ballard kept a diary for more than 27 years, and Ulrich was able to create a clear picture of what life was like for in New England. Through her analysis of Ballard's diary, Ulrich covers topics from abortion and childbirth to rape. Ulrich's work is a rich resource for those interested in what average life looked like in the late 18th century.<br />
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2. Carol F. Karlsen, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0393317595/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0393317595&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=cb791346d3eaa0606b6545685695445d The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England]'', (W.W. Norton & Co., 1998). <br />
<br />
The history of witchcraft in colonial America is both eerie and fascinating. Part of our fascination stems from how intellectually frustrating this phenomenon--the Salem Witch Trials, for example--was, but also how dramatic colonists' responses to these witches were. Karlsen explores the history of witchcraft in colonial America with clarity. Expressing that the history of witchcraft ''is'' women's history, and our analysis of can shift when we explore for an explicitly gendered lens. <br />
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3. María Elena Martínez, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/080477661X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=080477661X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b12b863eac2f96063d8146fc97ff07a8 Genealogical Fictions: Limpieza de Sangre, Religion, and Gender in Colonial Mexico]'', (Stanford University Press, 2008). <br />
<br />
In ''Genealogical Fictions'', Martínez charts the rise of racial categories in Spain's colonies. Martínez details the origin of this system in the Iberian peninsula, then charts the transformations and problems that emerge when this system is imposed onto a diverse and distant population. One of the central pillars of this book is the focus on gender and sexuality. As a system concerned with biological reproduction, female sexuality was central to determining legitimacy, hierarchy, and purity. But Martínez goes even further to detail how gendered descriptions were fixed to colonized peoples--ultimately cementing their fixed positions in the Spanish racial hierarchy.<br />
[[File:Good_Wives.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0807846236/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0807846236&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=9e26aecaa275dd4059382ba0a2772904 Good Wives, Nasty Wenches & Anxious Patriarchs]]]<br />
4. Kathleen M. Brown, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0807846236/ref=as_li_tlie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0807846236&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=9e26aecaa275dd4059382ba0a2772904 Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, & Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia]'', (University of North Carolina Press, 1996). <br />
<br />
This book is, in many ways, a challenge to Edmund Morgan's ''American Slavery, American Freedom''. In it, Brown argues that gender became a category of difference before race really entered American colonists' vocabulary. Beginning, of all things, with colonial tax law, Brown argues that the way that Virginia colonists perceived African and black women differently from English women helped to create a system of racial difference that ultimately led to racial slavery. A must read.<br />
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5. Sharon Block, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0807857610/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0807857610&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=1348915716e19b6406f81f3124c104a9 Rape and Sexual Power in Early America]'', (University of North Carolina Press, 2012). <br />
<br />
In ''Rape and Sexual Power in Early America'', Sharon Block provides a comprehensive analysis of rape accusations and prosecutions from approximately 1700-1820. Block examined more than 900 documented incidents of "sexual coercion" to illustrate the dynamics of sexual power in play in British North America. According to Block, definitions of rape or assault were more frequently based on the identities of the parties involved. Through her analysis of these documents, Block argues that the way official persecuted these infractions worked to preserve the social, racial, gender, and political hierarchies of early North America.<br />
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6. Clare A. Lyons, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0807856754/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0807856754&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=c9a91d75d983f3d56ce7ae29c4a74149 Sex Among the Rabble: An Intimate History of Gender and Power in the Age of Revolution, Philadelphia, 1730-1830]'', (University of North Carolina Press, 2006). <br />
In this fascinating book, Lyons centers her analysis on the sexual practices of "the rabble," and explores the limits of freedom and individualism. Like Block, Lyons argues that sex and gender were crucial to reconstituting social hierarchies.<br />
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7. Jennifer L. Morgan, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0812218736/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0812218736&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=c16ec614bc8dd11d1c83e382478cd320 Laboring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery]'', (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004). <br />
<br />
In this book, Jennifer Morgan focuses her attention on slave women and their bodies from the 1640s to the 1750s, approximately. Specifically, Morgan is concerned with slave women's statuses as producers (i.e. laborers), and reproducers (biological). She explores several different slave systems in the Atlantic world to piece together an interesting analysis of how slave traders and slave owners viewed slave women, and how slave women negotiated their own existence as well. <br />
[[File:Dispossed_Lives.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|<i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0812248228/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0812248228&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=25c6ddbdf5a196012dedefbae558ca8f Dispossessed Lives: Enslaved Women, Violence, and the Archive]</i>]]<br />
8. Carol Berkin, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1400075327/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1400075327&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=0d206ae11e640b030bbae88b1633628a Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America's Independence]'', (Vintage, 2006). <br />
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For those craving a female counterpart to the traditional narrative of the American Revolution, this book is for you. Carol Berkin retells the now-common story of the American Revolution through the eyes of women who lived through and participated in it--from generals' wives to everyday women participating in boycotts of British Goods. Berkin allows us to get a complete picture of this significant event in American history.<br />
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9. Bárbara O. Reyes, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0292723474/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0292723474&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=6c5186ddd1d7c2c604a9470badafa84c Private Women, Public Lives: Gender and the Missions of the California]'', (University of Texas Press, 2009). <br />
<br />
In this book, Bárbara Reyes explores what life was like for women in Spanish California. Reyes looks, first, at the creation of the missions in California then moves to analyze three three different women and their experiences from the late 18th century to the early 19th century: an Indian woman accused of murdering a priest, a Spanish woman who accuses her husband of adultery, and a Mestiza woman who became the ''lavera'' or head housekeeper at the San Gabriel Mission.<br />
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10. Marisa J. Fuentes, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0812248228/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0812248228&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=25c6ddbdf5a196012dedefbae558ca8f Dispossessed Lives: Enslaved Women, Violence, and the Archive]'', (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016). <br />
In this book, Marisa Fuentes takes us to Bridgetown, Barbados where she takes us through the lives of women--enslaved an free--who would otherwise be invisible in the historical record. Using interdisciplinary methods, pieces together a narrative from fragmentary sources and also looks at the archives themselves and how they mark women's bodies.<br />
<br />
{{Mediawiki:Colonial History}}<br />
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*[[Thomas Jefferson, the Founding Fathers and Christianity: Interview with Sam Haselby]]<br />
*[[American Revolution Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798: Interview with Terri Halperin]]<br />
*[[Hodges' Scout: Interview with Len Travers]]<br />
*[[Why did African Americans join the British Army during the American Revolution?]]<br />
</div><br />
[[Category:Booklists]] [[Category:Expert Booklists]] [[Category:Women's History]] [[Category:Colonial American History]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_Early_Mathematics_Evolve&diff=13767How Did Early Mathematics Evolve2018-11-22T21:17:48Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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[[File:Plimpton 322.jpg|thumbnail|left|275px|Figure 1. The so-called Plimpton 322 tablet used to calculate different Pythagorean triples.]]<br />
Mathematics today profoundly affects our societies and has had a lasting impact on science and technology. However, before Greek mathematicians developed many wonderful achievements in this area, what are the origins of mathematics and how did this field evolve in its early history?<ref>For further information on factors leading to the rise of early mathematics, see: Bell, Eric Temple. 1992. ''The Development of Mathematics''. New York: Dover Publications.</ref><br />
<br />
==The Early Origins==<br />
<br />
While it is clear that early arithmetic developed in early prehistoric periods of human societies, more complex mathematics have developed via many different routes. Perhaps one of the most significant contributors to mathematics was the development of agriculture and cities. With the rise of these two factors, societies increasingly needed to calculate division of property, sharing of resources, accrual of wealth, and track the motion of the planets and stars, which all required more complex mathematical developments. <br />
<br />
Most likely, the oldest documents that are mathematical in nature generally deal with accounting, which developed when writing first develops in the late 4th millennium BC in ancient southern Mesopotamia (now southern Iraq). By the 3rd millennium BC, calculations for interest, loans, and division of goods seem to be common among the Sumerians, who lived in southern Mesopotamia. <ref>For information on early written texts and their role in mathematics, see: Campbell-Kelly, Martin, ed. 2003. ''The History of Mathematical Tables: From Sumer to Spreadsheets''. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. </ref> This included dividing field property and determining dimensions of land. In fact, this aspect of property division, related to agricultural land, created more complex problems such as determining the area of a triangle or calculating what the dimensions should be for given sides of a triangle. Because of this, we know by about 2000 BC, but likely earlier, the Pythagorean theorem had been invented, nearly 1500 years before Pythagoras, the man who has given his name to the theorem, was born. This innovation of the Pythagorean theorem seems to have happened both in Mesopotamia and Egypt (Figure 1).<ref>For a history on the development of the Pythagorean theorem, see: Katz, Victor J., and Annette Imhausen, eds. 2007. ''The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook''. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</ref> <br />
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The Egyptians had also developed by the 3rd millennium BC a base 10 numeration system. By around 1650 BC, Egyptian mathematicians had developed a system of binary numbers, while also being able to determine prime numbers and calculations for arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic means (Figure 2).<ref>For information on early Egyptian mathematics and key developments in numerical systems, prime numbers, and means, see: Clagett, Marshall. 1989. Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, v. 184, 214, 232. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.</ref> Both Egyptian and Mesopotamian sources indicate a system for developing fractions and providing their notation. <ref>For information on early fractions, see: Katz, Victor J., and Annette Imhausen, eds. 2007. ''The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook''. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</ref> <br />
[[File:Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.jpg|thumbnail|Figure 2. This is the Rhind papyrus, which enabled insights into Egyptian mathematics and concepts such as binary numbers, prime number, and calculations for arithmetic, geometric and harmonic mean]]<br />
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The Mesopotamian system of mathematics was also sexagesimal, or based on the division of 60. While this may seem an odd division-based system, the numeric system is very convenient for calculation of coordinates or rotation in a circle (e.g., 360 degrees is easily divided by 60). The divisions of time we use today (i.e., 60 seconds, minutes, etc.) derive from this Mesopotamian system. Additionally, we know that by the early 2nd millennium BC, estimates for π (3.125 estimated by the Babylonians) existed and the Babylonians, who lived in southern Mesopotamia and succeeded the Sumerians, understood how to measure volume and area in circular objects.<ref>For information on the Babylonian numeric system and calculations of volume and area, see: Friberg, Jöran. 2007. ''A Remarkable Collection of Babylonian Mathematical Texts''. Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences 1. New York: Springer.</ref><br />
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Other mathematical principles already understood by the early 2nd millennium BC were concepts of square roots/powers, inverse numbers, quadratic equations, exponential growth, a form of Fourier analysis, and other types of calculation used in geometry and algebra.<ref>For information on Babylonian Fourier analysis, see: Prestini, Elena, and Elena Prestini. 2004. ''The Evolution of Applied Harmonic Analysis''. Boston: Birkhauser. For information on quadratic equations and square roots, see: Kline, Morris. 1972. ''Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times''. New York: Oxford University Press, pg. 8.</ref> Concepts of zero were also well understood by the early 2nd millennium and were represented as a space or symbol in Mesopotamia and Egypt respective.<ref>For a history of zero, see: Bunt, Lucas N. H., Phillip S. Jones, and Jack D. Bedient. 1988. ''The Historical Roots of Elementary Mathematics''. New York: Dover Publications.</ref> Very recently, a paper was published that showed the Babylonians had already developed an early forerunner of calculus, by around 2000 BC using abstract mathematics for estimating distances plants travel in space. Previously, some of the forms of Mesopotamian calculations used for complex shapes and distances were assumed not to have been invented until the 14th century AD.<ref>For this paper, see: Ossendrijver, M. 2016. “Ancient Babylonian Astronomers Calculated Jupiters Position from the Area under a Time-Velocity Graph.” ''Science 351'' (6272): 482–84. doi:10.1126/science.aad8085.</ref><br />
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==The Role of Astronomy==<br />
<br />
What was key to the development of sophisticated calculations such as quadratic equations or forms of Fourier analyses was Astronomy. The Babylonians, in part out of religious devotion and need to observe the movement of the planets and stars, developed many sophisticated calculations to predict where and when plants and stars would be, including the timing of eclipses. The need to develop complex calculations to track orbits of celestial objects necessitated the need to develop far more sophisticated analyses that eventually became the foundation of modern day calculus. In fact, by approximately 300 BC, Babylonian mathematicians had developed sophisticated techniques in calculating distance and time together for estimating the movement of celestial objects.<ref>For information on how the astronomy played a role with mathematical developments, see: Hunger, Hermann, and David Edwin Pingree. 1999. Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia. Handbuch Der Orientalistik. Erste Abteilung, Der Nahe Und Mittlere Osten, ''Handbook of Oriental Studies. The Near and Middle East, 44''. Bd. =. Leiden ; Boston: Brill.</ref><br />
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==Other Developments==<br />
<br />
Sometime by the 1st millennium BC, Chinese mathematicians began using negative numbers. This seems to have been used to calculate taxes or other monetary values. In fact, we know from Leibniz, who was one of the developers of calculus, that ancient Chinese mathematicians had developed a binary numeric system that influenced his own development of binary calculus. The system of the Chinese, in effect, influences our own use of binary calculus.<ref>For a history of ancient Chinese mathematics, see: Cullen, Christopher. 2007. ''Astronomy and Mathematics in Ancient China: The Zhou Bi Suan Jing''. Cambridge Univ Pr.</ref> Developments in India include a decimal systems that became the foundation of our own decimal system used today.<ref>For more information on the Indian decimal system, see: Bhanu Murthy, T. S. 2009. ''A Modern Introduction to Ancient Indian Mathematics''. New Delhi: New Age International.</ref> Additionally, many other similar achievements noted for Egypt and Mesopotamia, such as in geometry, algebra, and trigonometry, have also been found in India and China.<br />
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==Summary==<br />
<br />
What is clear is long before major contributions by Greek mathematicians, we see numerous contributions by Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Chinese, and Indians sources unfolding. These contributions were critical for later mathematics and sciences, enabling such fields as modern cartography, prediction of celestial movements, calculations of areas and volumes, and creation of accurate time measurements and calendars. In some cases, such as the early forerunners to calculus, have been entirely unexpected discoveries that have forced our re-evaluation of what people knew sometimes thousands of years before techniques were though to have developed. This shows that many mathematical discoveries were likely made and may have been forgotten before their rediscovery in Classical or Renaissance works. However, foundations of our own mathematics and sciences can be now certainly traced back to far older sources. Given the large volume of unpublished ancient texts, it is highly likely even more discoveries and surprises in mathematical sciences wait. <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]] <br />
[[Category:Ancient History]] [[Category:History of Science and Technology]] [[Category:Economic History]]<br />
<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
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</div></div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=When_were_Spy_Services_created_in_the_United_States&diff=13765When were Spy Services created in the United States2018-11-22T21:17:47Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>__NOTOC__<br />
[[File:Benjamin Franklin at the Court of France - NARA - 518217.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Figure 1. Benjamin Franklin was in charge of creating foreign favor for the revolutionaries in the American Revolution.]]<br />
Many Americans today would see that espionage work and spying by the United States is critical for their national security. The history of the services that have provided this, however, is more complex, and often mirrored the development and transformations that affected the US. Through its development as an independent state to one that expanded across the West, and its experiences in the Civil War and World Wars, history has shaped what spying means to the US. <br />
<br />
====Early Development====<br />
What is different from many other powers that developed spying services is the relatively short history of the US. The experiences, therefore, are different in how they have influenced government's approach to spying. One of the first spy groups derived prior to the American Revolutionary War in 1765. The Sons of Liberty formed as a group that fought against the Stamp Act and would observe British troop movements in Boston and other places. This group included well known revolutionaries such as Samuel Adams and John Hancock. <br />
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During the Revolutionary War, George Washington was one of the first to write and recognize the need for espionage. Threats to the colonists/revolutionaries, and eventual early US military, were from Britain. War espionage depended on a network of spies throughout different areas, where Washington wanted to stay one step ahead of the pursuing British Army. This included using Native Americans, who were adept at secretive observations that Washington had firsthand experience with during the French and Indian War. Washington also used a cryptanalyst Samuel West to read secretive letters. Double agents were also used by the British to counter Washington, such as Dr. Benjamin Church who fed important information about the revolutionaries.<ref>For more on spying during the American Revolutionary War, see: Sulick, Michael J. 2014. <i>Spying in America: Espionage from the Revolutionary War to the Dawn of the Cold War</i>. Georgetown University Press.</ref><br />
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Benjamin Franklin (Figure 1) was placed in charge of the Committee of Secret Correspondence, which worked to change sentiment about the Revolution in European states so that the revolutionaries would gain increasing support. His most successful efforts were with the French, who ultimately helped aid the revolutionaries in fighting the British. This proved crucial in helping to turn the tide, where French troops and aid greatly helped the revolutionaries to successfully fight.<ref>For more on Benjamin Franklin's work during the war, see: Isaacson, Walter. 2004. <i>Benjamin Franklin: An American Life</i>. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks.</ref><br />
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After the war, American spying took a downturn as the country was preoccupied with building the young country. In fact, the US was ill prepared for the War of 1812, where US soldiers were often unaware even where the frontier with Canada was even located. It was the Civil War where things changed once again. The North, in the Civil War, developed a network of spies who were able to cross between the borders with the South, including using such individuals as William Alvin Lloyd. The North also developed two spying agencies, including one run by Allan Pinkerton and another run by Lafayette Baker. There was two due to infighting between generals and Lincoln's cabinet who depended on the different spymasters. This often lead to information not being shared and sometimes counterproductive efforts that even led to the arrest of spies working for the other agency. There were some notable successes in troop movement observations, but often the information did not have a clear chain where the intelligence could be used for actionable purposes. <br />
<br />
The South, on the other hand, had some notable successes, often creating an elaborate network in major northern cities. The most successful group was the so-called Canadian Cabinet, which ran a Southern spy network from Montreal. It is likely John Wilkes Booth, Lincoln's assassin, derived from this group. They also succeeded in several sabotage operations and creating fires in major cities that disrupted Northern cities.<ref>For more on US spying between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, see: Mickolus, Edward F. 2015. <i>The Counterintelligence Chronology: Spying by and against the United States from the 1700s through 2014</i>. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers.</ref><br />
<br />
====Rise of Modern Spying====<br />
[[File:Badge of the United States Secret Service (1875-1890).png|thumbnail|left|250px|Figure 2. The Secret Service was responsible for foreign intelligence in the late 19th century.]]<br />
Modern American espionage begins in the late 19th century. This included Grover Cleveland calling for assigning military attachés in foreign countries to gather more information about different countries. John Wilkie became head of the US Secret Service in the 1890s and became noted for breaking up a Spanish spy ring in Montreal during the Spanish-American War. The Secret Service (Figure 2), in fact, was created as a result of the Civil War (in 1865) and for its first few decades mostly focused on combating counterfeiting of the US currency and other acts that could sabotage the US economy, such as smuggling. <br />
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In 1908, the Bureau of Investigation, what eventually became as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), was formed. Initially, they focused on policing activities and against organized criminal activities such as prostitution. However, they also engaged in domestic surveillance. This was tested in World War I, where they were able to discover German agents and saboteurs. Nevertheless, in World War I, the US was still not effective in foreign espionage. Most intelligence from World War I depended on British spy services that were established.<ref>For more on the rise of American spying after 1865 and until World War I, see: Hastedt, Glenn P., ed. 2011. <i>Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations: An Encyclopedia of American Espionage</i>. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.</ref><br />
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After World War I, most activity focused on domestic surveillance, particularly against communists and others deemed as threats. In the 1920s, modern cryptography developed in the US. William Friedman, a Russian immigrant, was appointed as cryptanalyst for the Army Signal Intelligence Service, which was successful in breaking the Japanese code used in their diplomatic cables. This enabled the US to be aware that an attack like Pearl Harbor was going to occur, although they were not able to determine where it would occur. World War II, particularly with the attack on Pearl Harbor, led to major new developments in intelligence gathering in the US. The US Navy's Combat Intelligence Unit was appointed with creating a a code breaking unit called "Magic." This work help lead to early developments of computers, such as it had in Britain by work conducted by Allan Turning during World War II. <br />
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World War II also began the long relationship between private industry and government for espionage work, with IBM developing their punch card machines to help in cracking Japanese code used in the war. This culminated in the Battle of Midway, where the US had advance knowledge of the battle and were able to defeat the Japanese because they had known when and where the attack would take place. During World War II, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) began to coordinate special operations and spying activity.<ref>For more on post-World War I spying development and up to World War II, see: 2002. <i>Studies in Intelligence</i>. V. 46, No. 3. CIA.</ref><br />
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====Recent Developments====<br />
The 1947 National Security Act created the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and led to the National Security Council (NSC) that had authority over it. The 1950s and 1960s saw the CIA leading many anti-communist and Soviet activities, where the US began to get far more involved in foreign politics, such as elections of left-wing leaders in different states. The most noted success was the uncovering of nuclear missiles sent to Cuba in the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. In the 1960s, the Directorate of Science and Technology (DST) was created to coordinate technology efforts to aid in spying, including the production of spy satellites and other technologies. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, the FBI became more active in domestic surveillance, where communism as well as organized crime were of keen interest. The next major change was the Patriot Act of 2001, which gave the government increased authority to collect and analyze private data. There was also a mandate to better coordinate foreign and domestic intelligence. This was in reaction to the September 11th attacks on New York and Washington. Since then, controversies have often revolved how much private information should the government posses and the balance of security and counter-terrorism efforts.<ref>For more on post-World War II spy developments in the United States, see: Carnes, Mark C., ed. 2007. <i>The Columbia History of Post-World War II America</i>. Columbia Guides to American History and Cultures. New York: Columbia University Press.<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
====Summary====<br />
Spying has had many phases in the United States. It started before the Revolutionary War as an ad hoc network of spies that then evolved into more elaborate agencies in the Civil War. However, that period showed deficiencies by not coordinating activities. By the late 19th century, the Secret Service became the central spy service and later the FBI emerged as the agency that conducted forms of domestic surveillance. During World War II, there was an increased need to develop better foreign espionage. This led to the emergence of the CIA. Modern spying has also increasingly led to closer coordination between foreign and domestic surveillance.<br />
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====References====<br />
<references/><br />
[[Category:Wikis]][[Category:United States History]][[Category:Diplomatic History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_has_been_the_Role_of_Horses_in_Human_Societies&diff=13766What has been the Role of Horses in Human Societies2018-11-22T21:17:47Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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[[File:1200px-%C3%84gyptischer_Maler_um_1355_v._Chr._001.jpg|left|thumbnail|300px|Horses used in Ancient Egypt to pull chariots.]]<br />
The horse today is often seen as an animal useful for recreation, sport, transport, and work. The nature of the horse, however, has changed in different societies across time. Sometimes horses were seen as war animals, while in other places and periods there use was the privy of royalty.<br />
<br />
==Early Horse Domestication== <br />
<br />
Most studies suggest that domestication of the horse took place along the Eurasian steppe. However, it is not clear where exactly and most likely there were several independent domestication attempts. Interestingly, wild horses before domestication show a wide range of interspecies variation; however, it is believe that only one type of species became domesticated.<ref> For more information regarding the debate of horse domestication, see: Olsen, Sandra. 2006. “Early domestication on the Eurasian Steppe,” In: ''Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms'', Melinda Zeder (Ed.). Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press, pg. 245-269.</ref> Most likely, the horse was domesticated by 4000-3500 BC. All domesticate horses are classified as Equus ferus caballus, with Equius ferus as being the species that domesticated horses derive from.<ref>For more information on the species of horses, including how a single species became domesticated, and their genetics, see: Weinstock, Jaco, Eske Willerslev, Andrei Sher, Wenfei Tong, Simon Y.W Ho, Dan Rubenstein, John Storer, et al. 2005. “Evolution, Systematics, and Phylogeography of Pleistocene Horses in the New World: A Molecular Perspective.” Edited by David Hillis. ''PLoS Biology 3'' (8): e241. dos:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030241.</ref> <br />
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Initial domestication may have been done as a means to develop horses as traction animals, or use in agriculture and plowing, and also for riding.<ref>For more information for the early domestication of the horse, see: Mills, D. S., and Sue M. McDonnell, eds. 2005. ''The Domestic Horse: The Origins, Developments, and Management of Its Behavior''. Cambridge, UK ; New York: Cambridge University Press, pg. 7.</ref> Probably at around the 3rd millennium BC, the horse began to spread across Eurasia and into China, Europe, and India. This could have been associated with the migration of Indo-European and Eurasian groups that were likely migrating across Asia during this time. These populations may have introduced horses, therefore, to new regions such as the Near East, India, and China. <br />
<br />
During the 3rd millennium BC, the utility of the horse for warfare is apparent and the association of horses for high status individuals is likely, as warriors of high standing were now sometimes buried along with their own horses. Horse skulls were also sometimes separated and buried separately, suggesting a type of cult around horses may have also developed.<ref>For more information on burial of horses and cults around horses, see: Drews, Robert. 2004. ''Early Riders: The Beginnings of Mounted Warfare in Asia and Europe''. New York: Routledge.</ref> By the end of the 3rd millennium BC, the horse is referred to in ancient textual sources from the Near East.<ref>For information on some of the earliest historical references to horses, see: Postgate, JN. 1986. “The Equids of Sumer, Again,” In: ''Equids in the Ancient World'', Meadow RH, Ueopmann H-P (Eds.). Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag: Weisbaden, pg. 194-206.</ref><br />
<br />
==Spread of the Horse==<br />
<br />
With the migration of Indo-European and Central Asian groups into the Near East by the end of the 3rd millennium BC and early 2nd millennium BC, we now begin to see horses used in warfare in early urban societies. The horse increasingly gains prominence in the ancient Near East, where the ancient Amarna texts refer to them as a trade item and that they were desired by elites.<ref>For information on the trade of horses from the Amarna letters, see: Morkot, Robert, and Robert Morkot. 2010. ''The A to Z of Ancient Egyptian Warfare''. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, pg. 107.</ref> Although horses had clear advantages in warfare, they may have taken sometime before they became more commonly used. For one, there was the complexity of training horses, which was considered more difficult and perhaps exchanges for horses indicates that few people had the needed skills to properly train them. In fact, texts exist that show that horses were often difficult to train. Horses, although used for warfare, were also seen as useful pack animals and were utilized in trade routes in the ancient Near East. Prices for horses, however, were more expensive than other pack animals, further suggesting the difficulty in mastering these animals.<ref>For more information on how horses were used and spread in the ancient Near East, see: Orlin, Louis L. 2007. ''Life and Thought in the Ancient Near East''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pg. 82.</ref> Horses by around 1800-1600 BC were utilized with chariots in war, making them now among the most important war weapons available for ancient armies. <ref>For information on war horses and chariots, see: Eglan, Jared. 2015. ''Beasts of War: The Militarization of Animals''. JEG Publishing, pg. 47.</ref><br />
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<br />
==The Golden Age of the Horse==<br />
<br />
While the importance of the horse for warfare became evident in the ancient Near East by the early to mid second millennium BC, and likely earlier in the Eurasian steppes, another important turning point we see happen during the early 1st millennium BC. By this point, horseman were now the elite soldiers of militaries and horses became central to many armies, with charioteers now being replaced (Figure 1). The importance of the horse for military purposes is evident in the numerous ivories now found used to decorate horses.<ref>For more on the importance of elite horseman in the early 1st millennium BC, see: Dezső, Tamás. 2012. The Assyrian Army. 1 1: The Structure of the Neo-Assyrian Army as Reconstructed from the Assyrian Palace Reliefs and Cuneiform Sources Infantry. Antiqua et Orientalia 2. Budapest: Eötvös Univ. Pr.</ref> Horses were now also used for rapid messenger services, similar to the pony express later developed in the United States. Rapid messages sent between distant cities were important for communication within empires and militaries, starting with the Neo-Assyrian Empire but continuing with the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>For information on the utilization of horses for early 1st millennium BC messengers, see: Silverstein, Adam J. 2010. ''Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World''. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press, pg. 12.</ref> By the late 1st millennium BC, from around 300 BC, we now see elite horseman utilized in West Asia, Europe, Central Asia, China, and India. The innovation of the stirrup most likely facilitated the spread of horseman and the removal of chariots from the battlefield, as it facilitated the control of horses by riders and also probably made horse handling more widespread. This probably includes more widespread use of the horse for transport as well.<ref>For more information about the stirrup and its innovation for horses, see: Chamberlin, J. Edward. 2006. ''Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations''. New York: BlueBridge, pg. 80.</ref> It is during the 1st millennium BC that horses became increasingly associated with royalty in Asia, in particular Western Asia, and then in Europe as well.<br />
[[File:Britishmuseumassyrianrelieftwohorsemennimrud.jpg|thumbnail|Figure 1. By the Neo-Assyrian period in the 9th century BC, elite horseman began to replace chariots in battlefields]] <br />
The trend of horseman being among the most elite soldiers of militaries, in fact, persisted until the early 20th century AD, with the innovation of tank warfare. This makes the horse and horseman, in fact, one of the longest serving form of military tool used in armies. The roles of horses also increased as technologies further developed. In addition to warfare, horses in Europe and other locations began to replace oxen more substantially in agriculture in the Medieval period, although forms of this system existed already in ancient periods in the Near East by the 2nd millennium BC. In both Europe and the Near East, the use of padded harnesses enabled horses to more securely pull a plow, which facilitated horses to plow more area and regions and horses were now able to do this work far faster than oxen.<ref>For information on how horses improved Medieval agriculture, see: Zmolek, Michael Andrew. 2013. ''Rethinking the Industrial Revolution: Five Centuries of Transition from Agrarian to Industrial Capitalism in England''. Historical Materialism Book Series, volume 49. Leiden ; Boston: Brill.</ref> Horses became more commonly used as well for transport, as training and utilization of horses improved with greater knowledge.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
We see that horses, which were first domesticated in Eurasia, began to spread rapidly soon afterwards in the 3rd millennium BC. Horses and their roles included agricultural work, as pack animals, and as instruments of war. By the mid-2nd millennium BC, horses begin to have an even more dominant role in large-scale, complex society warfare. In the early 1st millennium BC, elite soldiers and horsemen replaced charioteers and became the elite soldiers of the battlefield until the early 20th century AD, even after innovations such as gunpowder and rifles. Key innovations such as the stirrup and harness facilitated the dominance of horses as beasts of burden and warfare.<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
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*[[How did Early Empires facilitate the Rise of Investment Banking?]]<br />
</div><br />
{{Mediawiki:Ancient Greece}}<br />
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==References==<br />
<references/><br />
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[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:History of Science and Technology]] [[Category:Ancient History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_French_Revolution_-_Top_Ten_Booklist&diff=13764Origins of the French Revolution - Top Ten Booklist2018-11-22T21:17:46Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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[[File:Anonymous_-_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg|thumbnail|left|400px|Storming the Bastille]]<br />
The French Revolution has been seen as a world-altering event. The revolution demolished a long standing monarchy and showed that it was a natural form of government. The Revolution also showed that it was possible to change society, using reason, for the better and worse. The French Revolution inspired many to agitate for democracy and equality around the world. It also unleashed an extraordinary amount of violence and paved the way for Napoleon's takeover of France. Many historians (not all) have argued that the French Revolution can be seen as the start of the modern world. <br />
===Top Ten===<br />
William Doyle. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0198731744/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0198731744&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=be7246ce65a158034b7c09eefe8cc944 The Origins of the French Revolution]''. (1990).<br />
This work is a synopsis of the events that led to the Revolution. It particularly focuses upon the French monarchs’s role in unwittingly starting the Revolution. The French monarchy was actually reforming itself and this resulted in the formation of political opposition to the royal government for the first time in centuries. This together with the spread of ideas on democracy and equality undermined the royal government. Ultimately, this lead to a revolt of the French people against the King. <br />
<br />
Roger Chartier and Lydia Cochrane. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0822309939/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0822309939&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=bdb5a6c1f7faaa152d6b9eb682f386c2 The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution]'' (1991).<br />
The cause of the Revolution was because of changes in the culture of France. Due to the Enlightenment and growing levels of literacy, people began to question the existing political system of France. Many French citizens came to believe that the Royal government was deeply flawed. This ultimately led to the monarchy losing support especially among the middle class. When the kingdom was beset by a series of socio-economic crises the government failed to act success and the population became eager for dramatic change. This led to the Revolution and the fall of the French Monarchy.<br />
<br />
George Lefebvre. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0231085982/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0231085982&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=d026352e0fb60ca541284ea01a5b6e4d The French Revolution from its Origins to 1793 - Vol. 1]''. Penguin Books (1962).<br />
The first volume of Lefebvre work is concerned with the origins of the Revolution. Lefebvre argues that the Revolution was a result of an ‘Aristocratic Revolution’. The Church and the nobility became increasingly frustrated with the government of Louis XVI, which was increasingly autocratic and disregarded their privileges. This led them to demand changes, such as the convening of the Estates General, to protect their privileges. The French elite demanded changes to the royal system but events spun out of control and a popular revolution occurred, that led to the fall of the monarchy and the destruction of aristocracy. <br />
[[File: The_French_Revolution.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|The French Revolution by George Lefebvre]]<br />
Peter Cambell. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0719082153/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0719082153&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=21f8f42b343275db157c55e66dbd1a66 Conspiracy in the French Revolution]'' (2005).<br />
The book is a discussion of the various theories on the causes of the French Revolution. It argues that various groups especially in the aristocracy sought to use the problems facing France in order to secure and advance their own self-interests. Cambell, argues that a small group of people, engaged in a conspiracy against the king, during the sitting of the Estates General. They were inspired by some of the more radical ideas of the enlightenment such as equality and republicanism. They undermined the royal government and eventually this led the people of France to revolt and the fall of the French King.<br />
<br />
Francois Furet. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0521280494/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0521280494&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b22f36abff0918a1c915b1d7ee8f2114 Interpreting the French Revolution]'' (1983).<br />
This has been a very important book and it was deeply influenced by post-modernist theories. Furet, believed that people had long accepted the monarchy in France, because they believed that there were no alternatives. The Enlightenment taught many that there was the possibility of an alternative to monarch in France and for change. The idea that change was possible and that royal government was not ordained by God, meant that people were willing to seek changes. The search for an alternative to rule by a King, led to the French Revolution.<br />
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Thomas Kaiser and Dale Van Kley (ends). ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0804772819/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0804772819&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=c74359881effcbf099ca52e2a0f8a0f5 The French Revolution: From Deficit to Deluge]'' (2010). <br />
This work is a collection of ten essays by leading authorities on the French Revolution. It discusses the various theories on the origins of French Revolution. The individual essays discuss various aspects the causes of the French Revolution. Many of the essays argue that the French Monarchy was become more repressive and intolerant as it entered a social and economic crisis. This provoked the French people to revolt and to establish a government that was based upon ideas of popular sovereignty. <br />
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<br />
Nigel Aston. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0813209773/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0813209773&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=8ca777fcba77d98598b09a79a912d188 Religion and the French Revolution: 1789-1804]'' (2006).<br />
This work discusses the role of religion in the French Revolution. Aston argues that changes in religion contributed to the fall of the French Monarchy. Jansenism, a group within French Catholicism, had encouraged many people to know longer see the monarch as appointed by God. Furthermore, because of the enlightenment increasingly members of the elite and the middle class no longer believed in the teachings of the Catholic Church. They increasingly refused to believe that the French King was appointed by God to rule the country. These religious changes meant that many people were more willing to challenge the monarch during a socio-economic and political crisis and this led to the French Revolution.<br />
[[File:Liberty_or_Death.jpg|thumbnail|275px|<i>Liberty or Death: The French Revolution by Peter McPhee</i>]]<br />
Simon Schama. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0679726101/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0679726101&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=8b582d018cb66732d6d1b446fbfc9783 Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution]''. (1990).<br />
This work is a narrative and an analysis of the French Revolution. It is primarily concerned with the perspective of the main players in the French Revolution. The author portrays as France as a very vibrant society, that was advancing economically and intellectually. The royal government of Louis XVI was autocratic. Such a government was not suited for the vibrant and new society that was emerging in France. The elite and the middle class increasingly became frustrated with the monarchy. When there was a fiscal crisis in 1789, they decided to use this as a pretext to change the government and this led to the fall of Louis XVI. <br />
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Peter McPhee. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0300189931/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0300189931&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=46bafe4a8c4235a2840cbb693e53919b Liberty or Death: The French Revolution]</i> (2016)<br />
This is a very recent book on the French Revolution from Yale University Press. The book is focused on trying to determine whether the French Revolution was a world changing event or simply a part of a longer period of violence around the globe. McPhee's book attempts to reinterpret the impact of the French Revolution. <br />
<br />
Alexis De Tocqueville. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0385092601/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0385092601&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=55f3ba45765bac002d5a143879d07545 The Old Regime and the French]'' (1998)<br />
This work is a classic on the French Revolution by a great French historian. It was written in 1848. The author adopts a sociological approach and analyses the forces in society that produced the revolution. De Tocqueville argues that France was a society that needed reform in order to help the country to deal with its range of problems. The French did not want a revolution but want to reform their system of government. However, the failure of reform, led to growing frustration and anger and this ultimately led to extremists starting a revolution, that ended the ‘Ancien Regime’ in France.<br />
<br />
The traditional view that a tyrannical king was responsible for the Revolution is now seen as no longer valid. Historians have revised their views on the causes of the French Revolution. It was a result of a complex series of interrelated events. The causes of the French Revolution were social, cultural, economic and political.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Booklists]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:History of French Revolution]] [[Category:Political History]][[Category:History Booklists]][[Category:French History]][[Category:Expert Booklists]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
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{{Mediawiki:French History}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_Ancient_Societies_Adapt_to_Dairy_Consumption&diff=13763How Did Ancient Societies Adapt to Dairy Consumption2018-11-22T21:17:45Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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[[File:1200px-Cow_female_black_white.jpg|left|thumbnail|275px|Holstein-Friesian Daily Cow]]<br />
We take for granted today that dairy consumption is something that is typical or even natural to human diet. However, that is not the case, as it contains lactose, a complex carbohydrate that is not digestible in most adult mammals.<ref> For lactose ingestion in mammals, see: Sahi, T. 1994. “Hypolactasia and Lactase Persistence Historical Review and the Terminology.” ''Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology'' 29 (s202): 1–6. dos:10.3109/00365529409091739. </ref> In other words, the vast majority of human beings, at one point, were physically unable to consume dairy products after their childhood; in fact, we see today a large percentage of people still unable to consume milk or dairy products in adulthood. This leads to the question on how did human societies become or evolve to the point where dairy consumption became prevalent?<br />
<br />
==Evolution and Agriculture==<br />
Natural selection, the process first uncovered by Charles Darwin, tells us that specific traits, over time, could become selected for, leading to a transformed species as given traits become advantageous for reproduction.<ref>For information on the process of natural selection, see: Endler, John A. 1986. ''Natural Selection in the Wild''. Monographs in Population Biology 21. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.</ref> Dairy consumption, in fact, is an example of how relatively recent natural selection pressures have transformed our human DNA. Over 11,000 years ago, that is before the invention of agriculture, almost all societies depended on hunting and gathering. Their diets were much more diverse than ours and consumed a large variety of meats, fruits, and vegetables.<ref> For information on the human diet in pre-agricultural societies, see: Hockett, Bryan, and Jonathan Haws. 2003. “Nutritional Ecology and Diachronic Trends in Paleolithic Diet and Health.” ''Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews'' 12 (5): 211–16. dos:10.1002/evan.10116. </ref> However, dairy was not a caloric resource they would have typically encountered during adulthood. <br />
<br />
During the rise of agriculture in the Near East at about 11,000 years ago, we see that sheep, goats, and cows were among the earliest animals domesticated. Other early domesticates include dogs and pigs. As all mammals produce milk, this led to early agricultural villages having now far greater dairy resources naturally available. Initially, very likely dairy would not have been easily consumed by adults and perhaps even avoided; however, genetic mutations naturally show a very small percentage of the human population would have had alleles or groups of genes that allow for the consumption of dairy later in life (i.e., they are lactose persistent).<ref> For genetic information about lactose persistence in pre-agriculture humans, see: Knapp, Michael, Carles Lalueza-Fox, and Michael Hofreiter. 2015. “Re-Inventing Ancient Human DNA.” ''Investigative Genetics 6'' (1). dos:10.1186/s13323-015-0020-4.</ref><br />
[[File:World_map_of_lactose_intolerance.png|thumbnail|left|350px|World Map of Lactose Intolerence]]<br />
This is made possible by the production of the lactase enzyme need to breakdown lactose into digestible carbohydrates. With greater availability of milk in early settled societies, the advantages of having a high caloric product that has calcium and fats that are beneficial became a greater selective pressure for human populations. The genes that then produce the lactase enzyme became selected for or gave advantages to given human populations that then allowed the consumption of lactose found in diary. The fact that milk was utilized very early in the Near East has meant that populations there do show a relatively high ratio of lactose persistence in adulthood (Figure 1).<br />
<br />
==Coevolution of Dairy==<br />
The story of how dairy developed as a product of consumption is, however, more complex. Once agriculture was invented, it did begin to spread to Europe, initially in southeast Europe before spreading to northern and western Europe.<ref>For tracing the spread of agriculture, see: Pinhasi, Ron, Joaquim Fort, and Albert J Ammerman. 2005. “Tracing the Origin and Spread of Agriculture in Europe.” Edited by Chris Tyler-Smith. ''PLoS Biology'' 3 (12): e410. dos:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030410.</ref> Looking at a modern map of populations that are lactose persistent (Figure 1), we see pockets where particular populations have a much greater portion of the population able to consume dairy. This indicates that the spread of dairy consumption was not even and that different populations have adapted differently to dairy consumption. <br />
<br />
In Europe, we see eastern Europe, around Poland and the Czech Republic, there is a greater percentage of people who are lactose persistent. A closer look at the haplotypes, or genetic groups, that include the genes for dairy consumption indicate that not all human populations that have evolved to consume dairy show the same genes involved in the consumption of lactase.<ref>For further on the genetic makeup of Europeans in relation to the consumption of diary, see: Leonardi, Michela, Pascale Gerbault, Mark G. Thomas, and Joachim Burger. 2012. “The Evolution of Lactase Persistence in Europe. A Synthesis of Archaeological and Genetic Evidence.” International Dairy Journal 22 (2): 88–97. doi:10.1016/j.idairyj.2011.10.010.</ref> <br />
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In other words, there are multiple evolutionary tracts that have led to the consumption of milk around the world. This happens due to the process of coevolution, when different environmental factors lead to evolutionary changes that result in similar adaptations but involve different gene groups. In fact, there are different divergences known to us in relation to dairy consumption; dairy we know has become one of the strongest factors in early human societies fitness and likely helped societies to survive particularly in times of famine.<ref>For the coevolutionary paths of dairy, see: Gibson, Greg. 2007. “Human Evolution: Thrifty Genes and the Dairy Queen.” Current Biology 17 (8): R295–96. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.02.011. </ref> The different evolutionary changes across different societies have allowed different populations to consume dairy as adults. The invention of agriculture in the Near East is, in essence, only part of the story.<br />
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==What Archaeology Tells Us==<br />
[[File:894px-GBM_-_Linearbandkeramik_7.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Linear Pottery from Bavaria]]<br />
To better understand how milk became consumed by different human societies we need help from archaeology. This is very clear in Europe, where many early Neolithic sites have been dated using radiocarbon dating techniques. Looking at the regions where early agriculture and milk consumption occurred, including ceramics that show evidence of milk being processed within them, and cow bones have been found, we can trace regions in Europe where the population after the arrival of agriculture from the Near East began to be more dependent on cattle.<ref>For a discussion on archaeological remains related to dairy, see: Oliver E. Craig, John Chapman, Carl Heron, Laura H. Willis, László Bartosiewicz, Gillian Taylor, Alasdair Whittle and Matthew Collins (2005). Did the first farmers of central and eastern Europe produce dairy foods? Antiquity 79: 882-894.</ref> We know in the ancient Near East that sheep and goat were more utilized. However, in central and eastern Europe, cattle became preferred and this led to more consumption of cow milk. <br />
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While cow milk is similar to sheep and goat milk, there are different properties and this led to different genetic changes in human populations that consumed this. We see this first happening during the so-called Linearbandkeramik (LBK) culture, which was the first European culture to adopt farming and spread its use in other parts of Europe (Figure 2).<ref>For information about LBK culture, see: Gotherstrom, A., C. Anderung, L. Hellborg, R. Elburg, C. Smith, D. G Bradley, and H. Ellegren. 2005. “Cattle Domestication in the Near East Was Followed by Hybridization with Aurochs Bulls in Europe.” ''Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272'' (1579): 2345–51. dos:10.1098/rspb.2005.3243.</ref>As this culture begins to spread from eastern Europe to other areas, such as Germany, France, and northern Europe, milk consumption also begins to spread. Populations in Europe begin to utilize cow milk more regularly in their food consumption, leading to, over time, more people adapting to become lactose tolerant. This, therefore, serves as an example of a different evolutionary path and genetic changes that led to milk consumption for European populations.<br />
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==Summary== <br />
What the evolution of milk consumption shows is that recent evolutionary pressures are still affecting how modern humans evolve. Dairy consumption in adulthood has only recently evolved, given its selective pressures for early agricultural societies. It is a complex history, with multiple evolutionary paths, but indicates that it became important for many societies. The consumption of milk has been one of the most important recent evolutionary changes in the human genome, as it allowed dairy to be consumed at a large scale for the first time. Given dairy’s importance to early farmers, this change led to the exploitation of new food resources, allowing human populations and settlement to expand to new areas. Over time, this had a transformative effect for human populations and their economic societies.<br />
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<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[What Is the History of Ice Cream?]]<br />
*[[Alexander the Great Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[Why was Alexander the Great So Successful In His Conquests?]]<br />
*[[What Factors Led to the Creation of the First Cities?]]<br />
*[[Thomas Jefferson, the Founding Fathers and Christianity: Interview with Sam Haselby]]<br />
</div><br />
{{mediawiki:Food History}}<br />
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==References==<br />
<references/><br />
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[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:Food History]][[Category:Archeology]][[Category:Ancient History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_Lysimachus_Impact_the_Hellenistic_World&diff=13761How Did Lysimachus Impact the Hellenistic World2018-11-22T21:17:44Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>[[File: Lisymachus.jpg|300px|thumbnail|left|Lysimachus of Thrace (ca. 360-281 BC)]]<br />
The Hellenistic Period (336-31 BC) of ancient Greek history was marked by a series of important political and cultural developments brought forth by men who for the most part lived by the adage, “might makes right.” After Alexander the Great died in 323 BC, his generals, known as the <i>Diadochi</i>, divided his conquests into a number of kingdoms and then engaged in a nearly constant series of wars with each other until the Romans became ascendant in the first century BC. Among the most important, although lesser known today, of Alexander’s successor generals was a man named Lysimachus.<br />
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A major reason why Lysimachus is not remembered as well as the other successor generals/kings, such as Ptolemy or Seleucus, is because his Kingdom of Thrace was not as enduring; but he was still one of the most influential men in the Hellenistic Period. Lysimachus was one of Alexander’s bodyguards and most loyal generals, who requited himself quite well on the battlefield in Asia. After Alexander died, Lysimachus became one of the original Diadochi and played a major role in the creation of the new political order and fought in all of the Diadochi Wars. As the Diadochi Wars raged across the Mediterranean region, Lysimachus established himself as a diplomat and statesman as the king of Thrace, making peace with certain kingdoms while going to war with others. <br />
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===Lysimachus and Alexander the Great===<br />
Little is known of Lysimachus’ early life, but based on the available historical references it is clear that he came from a distinguished military family from the Macedonian city of Pella. <ref> Arrian. <i> The Campaigns of Alexander.</i> Translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt. (London: Penguin Books, 1971), VI, 28</ref> Although the Macedonians spoke a dialect of Greek and their culture was Greek in most ways, Macedon was regarded as a backwater by the Greeks of the traditional city-states for the most part and given little respect until Alexander III (Alexander the Great) embarked on his epic campaign to conquer the Achaemenid Empire in 334 BC. Already at that point Lysimachus had earned the respect of Alexander as he was one of his trusted bodyguards. <ref> King, Carol J. <i>Ancient Macedonia.</i> (London: Routledge, 2018), p. 121</ref> By the time Alexander and his Macedonian led army arrived in India nearly ten years later, Lysimachus was one of his top generals. According to the second century AD Greek historian, Arrian, Lysimachus, along with Ptolemy, Perdiccas, and Seleucus, was one of the generals who crossed the Hydaspes River with Alexander. <ref> Arrian, V, 13 </ref> <br />
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Lysimachus’ familial connections may have helped him get his foot in the door, but he certainly proved himself worthy of his rank during Alexander’s Asian campaign. He fought alongside Alexander in every major battle and was wounded at the Battle of Sangala in 326 BC.<br />
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“By this time Porus had arrived with the rest of his elephants and 5,000 Indian troops. Alexander had had his siege-engines assembled and they were already being brought into position; but they proved unnecessary, for before a breach was made in the wall – which was of brick – the Macedonians undermined it, erected scaling-ladders at numerous points all round, and took the town by assault. Up to 17,000 Indians were killed in this operation and over 70,000 taken prisoner. Five hundred mounted men and 300 war chariots were also captured. Throughout the siege Alexander lost a little under 100 men; the number of wounded, however, was disproportionately large – over 1,200 – among them being Lysimachus, of Alexander’s personal guard, and other officers. <ref> Arrian, V, 24</ref><br />
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===Lysimachus and the Diadochi===<br />
[[File: Diadochi_EN.png|300px|thumbnail|left|Map of the Hellenistic Successor Kingdoms]]<br />
After Alexander the Great died in 323 BC, his generals met to divvy up his newly won empire. The agreement, which became known as the First Babylonian Settlement, gave control of Egypt to Ptolemy, Greater Phrygia went to Antigonus, Leonnatus received Hellespontine Phrygia, and Lysimachus was given Thrace. Cassander later took control of Macedonia and most of Greece. <ref> King, pgs, 186-7</ref> Not all of the highly ambitious Macedonian generals were content with their lots so wars soon followed, known as the Diadochi wars. Lysimachus played a limited role in the First (322-320 BC) and Second (319-315 BC) Diadochi Wars, but was an important factor in the Third Diadochi War (314-311 BC). During the Third Diadochi War, Lysimachus allied with Cassander and Ptolemy against Antigonus, who instigated a rebellion in Lysimachus’ new kingdom of Thrace. After three years of warfare, the belligerents signed a new treaty that left the boundaries of the kingdoms pretty much as they were before the war. <ref> King, pgs. 219-20</ref><br />
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===The Kingdom of Thrace===<br />
[[File: Pella.jpg|300px|thumbnail|left|The Ruins of Pella]]<br />
After the Third Diadochi War, Lysimachus focused his efforts on building a true Hellenistic kingdom in Thrace. Fortunately for Lysimachus, Thrace had the advantage of being within the Greek sphere of influence for centuries prior, as Greek colonists had settled the shores of the Black Sea. Like all good Hellenistic kings, one of the first things Lysimachus did was to rebuild a new city in his name in 309 BC. For Lysimachus, the city was appropriately named Lysimachia, which was located on the Propontis – the sea that separates the Black and Aegean seas – on the Gallipoli Peninsula. <ref> King, p. 221</ref> <br />
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Before commissioning Lysimachia, Lysimachus established his base of control in the coastal Greek cities, which he thought would be more pliable, but they rebelled in 313 BC, probably instigated at the behest of Antigonus during the Third Diadochi War. Lysimachus then expelled most of the rebellious population and began focusing his attention on northern Thrace. The ruler of Thrace then made at least one campaign into northern Thrace (modern Bulgaria) around 302 BC, which coincided with the end of the Fourth Diadochi War (308-301 BC) and his final battle with Antigonus. <ref> Delev, P. “Lysimachus, the Getae, and Archaeology.” <i>Classical Quarterly</i> 50 (2000) p. 386-9</ref><br />
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The Fourth Diadochi War pitted Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus against Antigonus and his son Demetrius. Demetrius proved to be an able commander, inflicting several battlefield defeats on Lysimachus and his allies, but the alliance prove to be too much for the father-son army, as Antigonus’ army was defeated and he was killed at Ipsus in Asia Minor in 301 BC. <ref> King, 224</ref> <br />
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Besides the death of Antigonus, the Fourth Diadochi War was important because the generals all began proclaiming themselves king, or <i>basileus</i>, of their respective kingdoms. Ptolemy proclaimed himself king of Egypt in 305 or 304, which Lysimachus followed up by doing the same in Thrace. <ref> King, p. 223</ref> While he was the king of Thrace, Lysimachus not only engaged in war against other Hellenistic kings, he also practiced the art of diplomacy. Lysimachus helped the city of Rhodes by providing them with much needed grain when it was being blockaded by Antigonus during the Fourth Diadochi War. After Antigonus was dead and the war was concluded, the Rhodians showed their gratitude toward Lysimachus by erecting a statue of him in their city. <ref> Diodorus Siculus. <i> The Library of History.</i> Translated by Francis R. Walton and Russel M. Geer. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2004), XX, 100, 1-2</ref><br />
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Lysimachus spent his later life fighting against Demetrius, Pyrrhus of Epirus, and his one-time ally Seleucus. The king of Thrace was able to defeat Pyrrhus and his expand his territory in 285 BC partially through guile, which was a respected trait among the ancient Greeks and Macedonians.<br />
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“Finally, however, after Demetrius had suffered a crushing defeat in Syria, Lysimachus, who by then felt himself secure and had no other distractions, lost no time in marching against Pyrrhus. He found his opponent encamped at Edessa; there he attacked him, captured his supply columns and caused his troops to suffer great hardship. Next, by writing letters to the leading Macedonians and spreading rumours, he set about weakening their loyalty to Pyrrhus. He reproached them for having chosen as their master a man who was a foreigner and whose ancestors had always been vassals of the Macedonians, and or having driven from their country the men who had been the friends and comrades of Alexander. When Pyrrhus discovered that many of the Macedonians were being won over, he took fright and withdrew, taking with him his Epirot troops and his allies, and in this way he lost Macedonia in exactly the same way that he had seized it.” <ref> Plutarch. <i> The Age of Alexander: Ten Greek Lives by Plutarch.</i> Translated by Ian Scott Kilvert and Timothy E. Duff. (London: Penguin Books, 2012), <i>Pyrrhus</i>, XII</ref><br />
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After vanquishing Pyrrhus, Lysimachus’ kingdom included Thrace, Macedonia, and most of Anatolia, making his the largest of all the Hellenistic kingdoms. But Lysimachus would not enjoy his success for long because in 281 BC he was killed in a battle against the forces of Seleucus near the city of Sardis. <ref> King, p. 228</ref> <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Lysimachus may not known by many people today, but an examination of his life reveals that he played an incredibly important role in the Hellenistic Period. Beginning his military career as one of Alexander the Great’s trusted bodyguards and most competent generals, Lysimachus earned enough respect among his peers to earn a spot at the table when the Diadochi divided up the spoils of Alexander’s conquests. Lysimachus then went on to become the king of Thrace and played a major role in the Diadochi wars before he finally died bravely in battle, as was befitting a true Hellenistic king.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[[Category: Ancient History]] [[Category: Ancient Greek History]] [[Category: Military History]] [[Category: Hellenistic Period]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Public_Health_and_the_Risk_Factor_by_William_Rothstein&diff=13762Public Health and the Risk Factor by William Rothstein2018-11-22T21:17:44Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>[[File:Public_Health_Rothstein.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1580462863/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1580462863&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=9942b2c2143d07402d78085684d6006c Public Health and the Risk Factor]'' by William G. Rothstein]]<br />
''“The acceptance of risk factors has produced changes in public health and medicine as profound as those that resulted from bacteriology and the germ theory of disease…Yet the impact of the risk factor has been much more uneven than the germ theory. The risk factor concept has been controversial because of its statistical methodology, its multifactorial concept of disease etiology, and its effect on the economic interests of commercial, profession, and health organizations.” (p. xi.)''<br />
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Millions are treated daily with drugs designed reduce cholesterol levels in the bloodstream. Americans pay billions of dollars for these drugs because they have been repeatedly told that these medications will reduce their risks of developing coronary heart disease. Despite these claims, health professionals often do not have sound understanding of the methodological and substantive issues originally involved in correlating these risk factors (such as high blood pressure, cholesterol, smoking, diet, and obesity) to coronary heart disease. The risk factor concept may have revolutionized medicine, but it has produced widely uneven results. <br />
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In ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1580462863/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1580462863&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=9942b2c2143d07402d78085684d6006c Public Health and the Risk Factor: The History of an Uneven Medical Revolution]'', sociologist William Rothstein attempts to explain why the outcome of this revolution has been mixed. By examining the history of the risk factor concept and its application to coronary heart disease, Rothstein slowly builds towards the conclusion that the American medical establishment has misinterpreted the evidence of various studies examining coronary heart disease. These erroneous conclusions have distracted the medical community from the most likely causes of heart disease, obesity and insufficient exercise. Instead, physicians and drug companies have developed expensive treatments, drugs, and surgical procedures which address the symptoms, but not the causes of heart disease. <br />
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Life insurance companies (especially the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company), not the medical profession, originally developed the concept of risk factors. Not surprisingly, life insurance companies were especially keen to develop accurate mortality tables. It was critical for life insurance companies to identify criteria to quickly evaluate the general health of their potential customers. It was even more important for companies writing industrial life insurance policies because these policies were small and carried slender profits. Industrial insurance companies only made money by selling the policies in large quantities to poor, urban clients. In the United States, tens of millions of these policies were sold and they became a fixture among urban working classes. In order for industrial insurance to be profitable, it was critical to identify criteria that could accurately predict mortality. <br />
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Life insurance companies commissioned studies utilizing statistics and probability. Statistics and probability had been used only sporadically by physicians in clinical studies at the time and they were considered by most physicians to be useless. Insurance companies disagreed. Not only did the companies commission studies, they were uniquely situated to fashion large studies, because they could examine their own clients’ insurance claims.<br />
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In 1903, the Specialized Mortality Investigation, a study commissioned by the insurance industry, identified risks factors such as “build, occupation, medical history, and residence” as related to premature mortality. The risk factors provided the companies with easily ascertainable criteria which could be used to identify “substandard risks” or “impaired lives.” (p. 63.) Based on these risks, insurance companies could raise or lower premiums accordingly. One of the key factors identified as having a strong relationship to mortality was an individual’s build. Contrary to the prevailing medical opinion of the time, the study found that overweight people were much more likely to meet an early demise. Other studies quickly determined that blood pressure was also useful in predicting mortality. Blood pressure had never been considered especially important to the medical community before its identification as a risk factor. <br />
[[File:Crestor_Tablets_(rosuvastatin).jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Crestor (Rosuvastatin) Cholesterol medicine]]<br />
Not only did the insurance industry identify risk factors, it educated a generation of physicians “about new developments of diagnosis,” created education programs for the general public and provided nurses to their clients. (p. 74.) Throughout the early twentieth century, insurance companies conducted innovative research designed to improve the accuracy of medical diagnosis. Scores of young doctors were hired by insurance companies to examine potential clients and indoctrinated regarding the importance of risk factors in general health. These early experiences shaped their attitudes regarding the utility of statistics and probability in medical research. On the other hand, the Metropolitan’s health education and visiting nursing programs promoted preventive health care among the general population. The primary motivation behind the Metropolitan’s health programs was financial and not philanthropic. Despite the companies mercenary motivations the programs were overwhelming beneficial and widely praised. <br />
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As mortality rates from infectious diseases declined in the twentieth century, the medical profession increasingly focused on preventing chronic diseases (such as coronary heart disease). Unlike the insurance industry, medicine was more skeptical of the utility of statistics and probability in identifying the underlying causes of disease. Additionally, physicians were not adept at interpreting their results. Chronic diseases (such as heart disease) have been especially difficult for the medical profession, because it has been challenging to determine the biological mechanism that causes chronic heart disease. Medicine has not been able to identify the root biological causes of heart disease in the laboratory. Instead, physicians have been forced to diagnose heart disease primarly through large statistical studies. <br />
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Rothstein argues that a careful analysis of these studies do not necessarily support the conclusions of their authors. The data from the Framingham Heart Study has been used for years, but it focused on only three specific risk factors (smoking, blood cholesterol, and blood pressure). Rothstein posits that results of that study were flawed because its authors narrowed the concept of risk factors and ignored social characteristics (such as “education, income, occupation, living conditions, health care, marital status, place of birth and family structure”) even though they appeared to play an important role in who developed heart disease. (p. 285.) <br />
While Rothstein agrees that smoking and blood pressure appear to be valid risk factors, he questions the benefits of treating high blood pressure in isolation and batters the medical profession for failing to link smoking and heart disease until recently despite clear statistically links. The tobacco industry used medicine’s hesitancy to connect smoking and heart disease to its advantage for years. It was not until the 1990s that the tobacco industry even acknowledged the connection between cigarette smoking, lung cancer and heart disease. <br />
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The most problematic risk factor for Rothstein is the correlation between blood cholesterol and heart disease. Blood cholesterol’s role in the development heart disease is uncertain and Rothstein directly questions the findings of that a reduction in cholesterol levels prevents heart disease. The side effects of the drugs and the high cost outweigh any speculative benefits. Additionally, the focus on cholesterol has diverted attention from the most likely causes of heart disease, obesity and insufficient physical exercise. Rothstein’s conclusions fit neatly with the historical evidence provided earlier in the book that heart disease was uncommon before the twentieth century. According to Rothstein, obesity and exercise are the single greatest determining factors for heart disease. Unfortunately, physicians are not well-positioned to alter an individual’s weight or mandate exercise. Instead of focusing on these issues, the medical profession has been sidetracked by prescribing blood pressure and cholesterol medicines. <br />
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Rothstein does not appear to rely on any specific social theory. If anything, Rothstein’s work is more informed by a sophisticated understanding of statistics, probability, and mathematics. Whether or not that constitutes a type of social theory may be worth debating. Additionally, it is arguable whether his work would benefit from the inclusion of any specific social theory. Unlike Warwick Anderson in his work Colonial Pathologies, Rothstein is not particularly interested in the motivations, morality or ethics of scientists involved in the Framingham Heart Study. Instead, he is focused on analyzing whether their conclusions were supported by the accompanying statistical evidence. Rothstein seeks to undermine the contemporary understanding and treatment of coronary heart disease by questioning the validity of the interpretations of these statistical studies. Because the biological cause of heart disease has not been determined in the laboratory setting, it may be possible for statistician or sociologist to ascertain risk factors as well as any physician.<br />
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[[Category:Book Review]] [[Category:Historiography]] [[Category:Medical History]] [[Category:United States History]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_is_the_significance_of_the_1968_East_L.A._Walkouts&diff=13760What is the significance of the 1968 East L.A. Walkouts2018-11-22T21:17:43Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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[[File:StudentDemonstrators_(1).jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Students protesting conditions in East Los Angeles schools in 1968.]]<br />
The 1960s and 1970s have been well documented and covered historically by scholars interested in the Black Liberation Movement, Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, and Rosa Parks, amongst other popular African American civil rights activists. What we know about the African American/Black civil rights movements are the obvious events leading up to the political revolutions that ensued. Segregation, Jim Crow laws, and the scars of slavery had all had their violent and discriminatory effects on the African American/Black population, especially in the South. <br />
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Unfortunately, the history of the powerful movement that was comprised of millions of Mexican and Mexican American individuals in the U.S. Southwest that happened concurrently to the African American/Black civil rights movement has been somewhat neglected. These individuals leading this movement eventually claimed the political identity of Chicano. Chicano had previously been a derogatory word used by Mexican and Mexican Americans in the U.S. for individuals who were poor and recent immigrants to the U.S.<ref>Richard Griswold del Castillo and Arnoldo de León, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B008W0J13C/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B008W0J13C&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=c9431f9c6cb484902ece972dde717853 North to Aztlan: A History of Mexican Americans in the United States]'', (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1996), 126.</ref> In the 1960s and 1970s, Chicanos reclaimed the word in order to signify that their indigenous ancestry and culture were important to them, as well as to the land they had lost from Spanish and American imperialism.<br />
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====El Movieminto====<br />
The Chicano movement, or El Moviemiento, was complex and came in to being after decades of discrimination, segregation, and other issues arising over decades of war and violence around the region we now know as the U.S./Mexican border. The East L.A. School Walkouts were an expression of the frustration over the treatment of the larger Chicano community by Anglos both in and out of the classroom. Contemporaneously to the walkouts, the United Farm Workers Movement was in full throttle. Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta were organizing strikes and convincing Mexican and Filipino laborers to become union members. <ref>Matt Garcia, "A Moveable Feast: The UFW Grape Boycott and Farm Worker Justice," ''International Labor and Working Class History'', 83, (Spring, 2013): 146-153.</ref> The East L.A. School Walkouts walkouts were critical component of the spark ignited the Chicano and Mexican American community to begin the fight for equality alongside their Native American, Asian, and African American brothers and sisters during the Civil Rights Era.<br />
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====East L.A. Walkouts====<br />
[[File: Cesar_chavez_visita_a_colegio_cesar_chavez.jpg|thumbnail|left|350px|Cesar Chavez]]<br />
On March 3, 1968, Mexican American students enrolled in Abraham Lincoln High School in East L.A. successfully organized a walkout and most of the students left their classrooms to protest their poor classroom education. They felt they were receiving a substandard education because they were Mexicans and Mexican Americans. The school had forcibly tracked most of the Mexican and Mexican American students into trade and vocational careers They did not allow them to even consider pursuing a degree four-year collegiate institution. <br />
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The students felt that the school system disregarded their culture and history and they called for more ethnic studies and more ethnically diverse faculty.<ref>Michael Soldatenko, “Mexican Student Movements in Los Angeles and Mexico City,” ''Latino Studies'', 1 (2003): 290-295.</ref> Much like the non-violent Black student sit-ins in Greensboro N.C. that had happened eight years prior, “the Los Angeles strike signaled the beginnings of a powerful Chicano student movement throughout the Southwestern United States.” <ref>Carlos Muñoz, “The Last Word: Making the Chicano Movement Revisited,” ''Black Issues in Higher Education'', 13, no. 3 (Apr. 4, 1996): 72.</ref> Before the strikes ended, more than 10,000 students would join in on the strike in states all over the Southwest all the way to South Texas. <br />
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The importance of the East L.A. walkouts lies in the growing dissatisfaction of the second and third generations of Mexican American and Chicano students in the high schools and colleges around the Southwest. For these students and young people, they saw their families struggling and being discriminated against just as the African American community had in the Deep South but with different historical contexts. Mexicans and Native Americans had always lived in the Southwest and only through Western Expansionism and multiple advances towards ridding the West of Native American ‘problems’ were Anglos able to successfully move their border across the communities that had been their for centuries. Because of this insertion of a new race and class based hierarchical power, Mexicans and Mexican Americans were considered second class citizens and the youth of the 1960s had seen what the history of the past couple of decades had done to their chances of gaining an equal education. Using the Chicano idea of Aztlan and claiming basic human rights, the students of L.A. and the Southwest began to march and organization around those ideas. What they did not expect was the amount of force they would encounter.<ref>Michael Soldatenko, “Mexican Student Movements in Los Angeles and Mexico City,” ''Latino Studies'', 1 (2003): 294-295.</ref><br />
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====COINTELPRO and Infiltration====<br />
What these students and organizers did not anticipate was the amount of push back they would receive from the federal government and the new COINTELPRO (Counterintelligence Program) that Herbert Hoover initiated in response to the Black Panthers and the Black Liberation movements in order to successfully stop and dismantle and civil rights movement. The protesters and organizers of the walkouts thought that they were exercising their constitutional rights to freedom of speech and protest. Unfortunately, thirteen members that were involved with the planning and organization of the East L.A. walkouts would be targeted and arrested for treason by COINTELPRO and the federal government. Sal Castro, a teacher who supported the students and spoke out against racist and discriminatory practices at Lincoln High in East L.A., would be included in the group of thirteen, which sparked uproar in the community in order to reinstate him as a teacher at Lincoln High. Eventually, the federal government would release Sal Castro and the other twelve individuals because of the unconstitutional nature of the arrests. As the American public became even more aware of Chicanos, the school walkouts, and their ability to form their own unique movements amongst the larger political atmosphere of the decade.<ref>Michael Soldatenko, “Mexican Student Movements in Los Angeles and Mexico City,” ''Latino Studies'', 1 (2003): 291.</ref><br />
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What the infiltration by the federal government of the East L.A. walkouts and the various groups that had begun to emerge like MEChA (Movimiento Estudiantil Chican@ de Aztlan) and MAYO (Mexican American Youth Organization) told the Mexican American and Chicano community was that they were considered dangerous and hostile. This would only fuel the fire that was the movement and begin to confirm that the Anglo community had no intentions of listening or even considering what Chicano’s and their allies had to say. The COINTELPROs existence was enough proof to argue that the federal government supported racial discrimination towards people of color, and in the case of the Chicano movement, the infiltration and the resulting protests and creation of community organizations would only be the beginning of a long fight for social, economic, and political justice for their people. <br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
The East L.A. walkouts is only one of the important markers signifying the beginnings of a political revolution that would eventually span the entire Southwest of the U.S. Non-profit organizations and other community organization rose out of the Chicano movement in order to better serve the local Chicano communities. These organization not only protested unfair conditions, but advanced Chicano rights through legal representation. These walkouts also helped spur the creation the Chicana movement of Mexican and Mexican American women. Chicanas came out of this important era with an understanding of how both racism and sexism played a role in their own unique oppression that barred them from leadership positions during the 1960s through the 1980s. <br />
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With influence from both the Chicano movement and the Feminist movement, Chicanas would begin to write their own literature and create their own art that was expressive of their identities. These pieces of literature and art inform today’s Chicano scholars and only improve the understanding of the Mexican American and Chicano culture. The Chicano movement would last up until about the early 1980s and fizzles out as the media focuses its’ attention elsewhere. What is important to understand about the ‘ending’ of this movement is that the people who took part in all of the marches and protests for equality never stopped working with their ''communidad'' in order to fight for social, economic, and political justice for the ''gente.''<br />
<br />
{{Mediawiki:Cell}}<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[What was the Second Wave Feminist Movement?]]<br />
*[[Interview:Re-evaluating the Albany Civil Rights Movement: Interview with Lee Formwalt]]<br />
*[[How Did the German Military Develop Blitzkrieg?]]<br />
*[[Why was France defeated in 1940?]]<br />
*[[What Was the Importance of Bill Mauldin to WWII Infantrymen?]]<br />
</div><br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
[[Category:United States History]][[Category:Civil Rights History]][[Category:20th Century History]][[Category:Social History]][[Category:Wikis]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=British_Criminal_and_Legal_History_Top_Ten_Booklist&diff=13758British Criminal and Legal History Top Ten Booklist2018-11-22T21:17:42Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>{{Mediawiki:kindleoasis}}<br />
[[File:Print_Culture,_Crime_and_Justice_in_18th_Century_London.jpg|thumbnail|275 px|left|<i>Print Culture, Crime, and Justice in 18th-Century London</i> by Richard Ward]]<br />
Despite notions to the contrary, legal history can extraordinarily fascinating. Legal history explores the conflicts that arise from civilization. A deft legal historian can look at the most bare bones court record or account and seemingly bring the trial to life. These books have been chosen because of their fantastic narration, informative overviews, and consideration of new historical themes within the field. For example, Shani D’Cruz and Louise Jackson add to our understanding of women's experiences before the law. And Richard Ward brings our awareness to how media can shape popular attitudes concerning crime.<br />
<br />
If you're even remotely familiar with the field of British criminal and legal history, no doubt you've seen John Beattie’s <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0691101663/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0691101663&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=6ceead9f39b02f5c3ecb44cb9e99b568 Crime and the Courts in England, 1660-1800]</i> which is why it's not on this list. This is considered to be the go-to reference for scholars, as it touches upon a wide range of crimes and walks the reader through court proceedings. It's a hefty work that attempts to leave nothing out. That being said, it's a good source to consult before moving on to more detailed analysis of the specific topic you're interested in. That's where our top ten booklist may be helpful. While several of these books provide a general overview of the field that may be useful to those just beginning to study, other works dig deeper into very specific historical themes or questions. <br />
<br />
===Top Ten===<br />
1. Andrew, Donna and Randall McGowen. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B008IU1RII/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B008IU1RII&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f2f0f535d3ce0eb74145dae9bb6062aa The Perreaus and Mrs. Rudd: Forgery and Betrayal in Eighteenth-Century London]</i> (University of California Press, 2001) While many of the books on our list deal with broad time periods and criminal themes, this engaging work reads like a contemporary criminal mystery. The Perreaus, twin brothers, and the wife of one of them, Mrs. Rudd, were accused of forgery in 1775. Along with the narrative retelling of the exciting case, Andrew and McGowen ask larger historical questions. For example, why was forgery a capital crime? How did fashion and style impact the court's perception of the defendants? A boring history of crime this is not. <br />
[[File:Policing_the_factory.jpg|thumbnail|275px|left|<i>Policing the Factory</i> by Barry Godfrey and David J. Cox]]<br />
2. Cox, David and Barry Godfrey. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00BCIQQV6/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B00BCIQQV6&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=6970a0196834e5a396159ca6f84eba77 Policing the Factory: Theft, Private Policing and Law in Modern England]</i> (Bloomsbury, 2014). Much of British criminal history focuses on victims and offenders before various courts of law. Cox and Godfrey bring to light a variety of workplace thefts and discuss how the law operated within the private work force. They build upon rich sources that include newspaper comments, case studies, memoirs, and archival statistics. Cox and Godfrey also analyze what these localized legal encounters meant for citizens in a modern England.<br />
<br />
3. D’Cruz, Shani and Louise Jackson. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01E3YTN6U/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B01E3YTN6U&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=13d434f207579c5f914267265dab86dd Women, Crime and Justice in England Since 1660]</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). Women in the courts and as part of the legal system have been greatly overlooked by historians of crime and law. D'Cruz and Jackson's work is a solid addition. They address crimes largely associated with women (prostitution, infanticide, witchcraft) and explore the changing nature of feminism in England. D'Cruz and Jackson draw on autobiographies, popular media, and court accounts. People interested in women's political activism and protest movements will enjoy the scholarship on this more recent history. <br />
<br />
4. Emsley, Clive. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/140585863X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=140585863X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=acf52d70e02c520f03ba439774e10ca3" Crime and Society in England, 1750-1900]</i> (Pearson Longman, 2013) Most students of criminal history will be familiar with some of Emsley's work. This book was originally published in 1986 and was a detailed analysis of how society responded to crime, criminal behaviors, and developed a police force. A revised fourth-edition ''Crime and Society'' has recently been published. This newest edition builds on Emsley's discussion of a criminal class in English history by including women. Specifically, it examines how contemporary expectations of gender influenced criminal proceedings.<br />
<br />
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5. Gray, Drew D. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1441117652/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1441117652&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=0a5ea08cf255b37fe758900a1d59e239 Crime, Policing and Punishment in England, 1660-1914]</i> (Bloomsbury Acadmic, 2016) Regardless of if you're new to the field of criminal and legal history or you're familiar with the subject, you'll find something useful and engaging in Gray's book. The book is divided into two parts. The first deals with specific themes (like juvenile crime and gender and crime) while the second part deals with the development of the justice system. Helpfully, Gray offers considerations for future research in the field.<br />
<br />
6. Kilday, Anne-Marie and David Nash. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0230224709/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0230224709&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=0a04760aa3ea832ca7f4fbce6c4f904d" Histories of Crime: Britain 1600-2000]</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010). Readers interested in such crimes as marital cruelty, infanticide, white-collar convictions, as well as the death penalty will probably find an essay of interest in Kilday and Nash's collection. The work does a good job of relating a case study in detail for each type of crime that's covered. This is a useful introduction to a variety of crimes, but it tells a larger story of how British society viewed criminals and criminal behavior over four-hundred years.<br />
[[File: Crime_justice_and_discretion_in_england.jpg|thumbnail|275 px|Crime, Justice and Discretion in England, 1740-1820 by Peter King]]<br />
7. King, Peter. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199259070/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0199259070&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=df7ff0da8d8875b2808d17cb1df0f79a Crime, Justice, and Discretion in England, 1740-1820]</i> (Oxford University Press, 2000) Since King is such a prolific historian in this field, we chose one of his works that contributes to social criminal history. By focusing on a somewhat narrow time period, King is able to give detailed descriptions of trail experiences from pretrial processes to sentencing and punishment. Although he is a social historian, King downplays the importance of women in the courtroom. <br />
<br />
8. Lemmings, David, ed. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1409418030/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1409418030&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b849e1823377f3c5a14ed7cbdffb80e7 Crime, Courtrooms and the Public Sphere in Britain, 1700-1850]</i> (Routledge, 2012) If you're looking for a variety of respected viewpoints on the changing nature of criminal proceedings, look to Lemmings's collection of historical essays. Most of the contributions rely on published accounts of trials, so the overall theme of the book is the rise of print culture and how it shaped public perception about the proceedings. Through these selections, Lemmings argues that print culture supported the prosecution while judging the morality of those on trial.<br />
<br />
9. Palk, Dierdre. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/086193282X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=086193282X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=fc002f8cc49efcdab5b101ba052a23a1 Gender, Crime and Judicial Discretion, 1780-1830]</i> (Royal Historical Society/Boydell Press, 2006) Palk has completed some of the more recent work on gender and the law. Her study highlights three main types of theft (shopliftin, pickpocketing, and uttering, or forgery). Palk does a good job of comparing the treatment and experience between male and female offenders. She largely focuses on defendants before the court, rather than their victims.<br />
<br />
10. Ward, Richard. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1474276431/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1474276431&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b581eaaf0689c9d332aa66f0728a2148 Print Culture, Crime and Justice in 18th-Century London]</i> (Bloomsbury Academic, 2016) It's understood court records and accounts became more detailed as time went on. In fact, the early-18th century saw a fascination with printed accounts of criminals and their trials. While many histories rely on the trial accounts themselves, Ward delves into newspapers, periodicals, and graphic prints as well as the trial proceedings and accounts of those ministering to the accused. For anyone interested in how criminals and crime were presented to a larger public, Ward's book is essential.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Booklists]] [[Category:British History]] [[Category:History Booklists]] [[Category:Legal History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[American Legal History Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[Angels of the Underground: Interview with Theresa Kaminski]]<br />
*[[Why Was the Battle of Antietam a Pivotal event in the American Civil War?]]<br />
*[[Hodges' Scout: Interview with Len Travers]]<br />
*[[Engineering Victory during the Civil War: Interview with Thomas F. Army, Jr.]]<br />
</div><br />
{{Mediawiki:British History}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=When_were_Spy_Services_in_England_Created%3F&diff=13759When were Spy Services in England Created?2018-11-22T21:17:42Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>__NOTOC__<br />
[[File:Maria Stuart Execution.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Figure 1. Mary Queen of Scots execution reflected the final outcome of a major plot against Elizabeth I. This plot led to the creation of the first organized espionage network in England.]]<br />
Spying has existed since early historical societies in the Middle East, China, and southeast Europe. However, spy services are generally a later development, where groups of government individuals and ultimately agencies within government became responsible for external and internal spying. England, one of the first countries to have a formal spy service, greatly professionalized spying and made it one of the birthplaces of what ultimately became modern espionage. <br />
<br />
====Early History====<br />
The rise of espionage or spying services could be traced to the Catholic and Protestant conflicts of the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe. In England, there was both a fear of a Catholic invasion and attempt to take the English throne as well as a desire to shape events in Europe, particularly in the Netherlands. Under the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603), one of the first official spymasters in English history arose in the figure of Francis Walsingham, who was also the Secretary of State for Elizabeth I. Another key person was William Cecil. Together, these two helped form what was called the Bond of Association, which was a document, and effectively a foundation document, for a network of spies that devoted themselves to the protection Elizabeth I after the Throckmorton Plot.<ref>For more on the Elizabethan spy network, see: Steve Arman, Simon Bird, Malcolm Wilkinson, & Rosemary Rees (eds.) (2002) <i>Reformation and rebellion 1485 - 1750</i>. Headstart in history series ed.: Rosemary Rees ; 22002. 1. publ. Oxford, Heinemann.</ref>.<br />
<br />
The Throckmorton Plot was a plot by English Catholics to murder Elizabeth I and place Mary Queen of Scots on the throne (Figure 1). While the plot failed, it made the aides nearest to Elizabeth realize that England would continue to face external threat, in the form of Spain in particular, and internal descent from Catholics who wanted to put a Catholic monarch back in power. What was significant about the Bond of Association is it committed a network of people to ensure any plot against the Protestant monarch would be attacked even if the reigning monarch was killed. This, in effect, put the interest of the Protestant state ahead of any individual, even if that individual had a valid claim to the throne. Any potential killers were to be effectively killed at all costs.<ref>For more on the Bond Association, see: J. A. Wagner & Susan Walters Schmid (eds.) (2012) <i>Encyclopedia of Tudor England</i>. Santa Barbara, Calif, ABC-CLIO, pg. 143.</ref><br />
<br />
Walsingham realized that to defeat future plots, tactics would have to include having a vast network of spies across England (and later Scotland after the accession of James I). Spies had to be able to decipher coded letters, find hidden ink in letters, search hiding spaces in homes, and infiltrate Catholic groups to know what they were up to. In effect, this created not only among the earliest espionage networks but also the first surveillance state that monitored its people at a vast scale. It also recruited many normal people to carry out mundane, everyday espionage in many different towns and municipalities across England.<ref>For more on Walsingham's surveillance network and the skills involved for these early spies, see: Haynes, A. (2007) <i>Walsingham: Elizabethan spymaster & statesman</i>. Stroud, Gloucestershire, Sutton. </ref><br />
<br />
====Later Development====<br />
[[File:John Thurloe from NPG detail.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Figure 2. John Thurloe professionalized spy networks in England after the English Civil War.]]<br />
After the English Civil war in the 1650s, Oliver Cromwell realized there needed to be greater control of the postal service, which became the primary way in which many plots were orchestrated. Thus, the Post Office, under John Thurloe, increased letter surveillance to help uncover plots against Cromwell. This development by Thurloe also included the earliest known usage of mathematicians as dedicated, state-sponsored code breakers, where Thurloe employed mathematicians from Oxford, such as John Wallis, to decipher conspiracies (Figure 2). This was also a period where a form of 'fake news' was instigated by the state by controlling the flow of information in mass media. While the state increased its efforts in trying to infiltrate various groups, including Catholics and potential conspirators, the state attempted to mislead in some news so as to help disrupt potential threats and ability to organize for hostile groups. The press, at times, could be used as a coded messaging system to conspirators.<ref>For more on Crowell's use of spies and particularly spying on the Post Office, see: Smith, G. (2011) <i>Royalist agents, conspirators and spies: their role in the British Civil Wars, 1640-1660</i>. Farnham, Surrey ; Burlington, VT, Ashgate.</ref><br />
<br />
Espionage, domestically and abroad, continued to be controlled by a spymaster often in the service of the monarch, that is after the monarchy was restored after the death of Cromwell. Well after Thurloe, a central spymaster, often the Secretary of State, would control both domestic and foreign spy networks. After the threat of Catholic invasion subsided, spies began to be used more against the threats to the emerging British Empire. Namely, this was France before and during the Napoleonic wars. Throughout the 19th century, espionage continued to mostly use the structure developed in the 17th century. This meant there was increasingly high burden on a single figure in government responsible for domestic and foreign spies. As the British Empire expanded, so to did the needs of the British espionage services.<ref>For more on the development of spies particularly in the Napoleonic wars, see: Sparrow, E. (1999) <i>Secret service: British agents in France, 1792-1815</i>. Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK ; Rochester, NY, USA, Boydell Press.<br />
</ref><br />
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====British Espionage Services====<br />
The increasing complexities of the 19th century and British entanglement in international affairs as the British Empire expanded demonstrated a new structure was needed to manage the government's espionage services. In 1909, the Security Service (MI5) and Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) were created with the realization two agencies were needed to manage domestic (MI5) and foreign intelligence (MI6) gathering. At this point, the emerging power of Germany became the biggest foreign threat, while civil unrest over inequality and poor conditions meant that MI5 was also very active in thwarting rebellion and rise of new ideas such as Communism. However, it was the events of World War I where both these services saw great expansion and began to mature to the systems we know them today. Even before the war, there was much tension over the increasing naval arms race between Britain and Germany that led to many accusations of espionage against Germany, with at least one case where a true plot was, indeed, uncovered. <br />
<br />
During World War I, approximately 120 spies served Germany and were sent or assigned to Britain, of which 65 were caught and the remainder failed to send significant intelligence. This demonstrated that the new structure of dividing the external and internal spy agencies was a relatively workable model that made it easier for one head to focus on. By the end of World War I, the new threat and more significant threat was seen to be Communism and the rise of the Soviet Union.<ref>For more on the development of MI5 and MI6, see: Thomas, G. (2009) <i>Secret wars: one hundred years of British intelligence inside MI5 and MI6</i>. 1st ed. New York, Thomas Dunne Books.</ref> <br />
<br />
While MI5 was active in keeping Germany and other threats away from harming Britain, MI6 worked to cultivate its spies in the continent. The development of many spies in Belgium, in particular, allowed Britain to gain a lot of quality intelligence from Germany during the course of the war. This network was known as ‘La Dame Blanche, where everything from monitoring train movements to troop movements and reports about battlefield losses were obtained from the spy networks primary area of operations in Belgium.<ref>For more on the ‘La Dame Blanche, see: Richelson, J. (1997) <i>A century of spies: intelligence in the twentieth century</i>. Oxford paperpacks. New York, Oxford Univ. Press, pg. 23.</ref><br />
<br />
After World War II, military clandestine warfare began to be absorbed into MI6, that is Special Operations Executive (SOE), integrated with MI6. The Cold War period also saw the US Central Intelligence Agency form close working relationships. While MI5 attempted to keep the Soviet Union off balance in its spying attempts, many other threats emerged, including the Irish Republication Army during the Troubles and industrial espionage by states. For the most part, Britain had relatively greater success than the United States in the Cold War in preventing important secrets from being discovered.<ref>For more on Cold War espionage, see: Trahair, R.C.S. & Miller, R.L. (2012)<i> Encyclopedia of Cold War espionage, spies, and secret operations</i>. New York, Enigma.</ref><br />
<br />
====Conclusion====<br />
Modern espionage in England and eventually the United Kingdom has its roots in 16th century Tutor England during a period of great conflict between Catholic and Protestant states. This period produced many plots and internal and external threats that led to the development of the first organized spy networks. These networks increased in their effectiveness in the 17th century as espionage became more professionalized. However, it was the reforms that led to the creation of MI5 and MI6 that has given us modern British espionage. The structure created in the early 20th century has largely stayed in tact, although modifications continue to be made today.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]] [[Category:Political History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:British History]][[Category:Diplomatic History]]<br />
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{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_Edwin_Drake_create_the_World%27s_first_oil_well&diff=13757How did Edwin Drake create the World's first oil well2018-11-22T21:17:41Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>__NOTOC__<br />
[[File:652px-First_Oil_Well.jpg|left|thumbnail|250px|Edwin Drake and his oil well]]<br />
Even though there was no one "first discover" of oil. Oil was known in antiquity when it was used to heal wounds. But by the middle of the 19th century methods for collecting oil from the ground had not changed for thousands of years. Edwin Drake's oil fundamentally changed this process and dramatically increased oil production around the world. Instead of harvesting oil in a pail or sopping it up with rags and wrung out by hand over barrels, oil wells produced thousands of barrels of oil. The creation of the oil well fundamentally altered the course of the 20th century. <ref>American Chemical Society, “The Development of the Pennsylvania Oil Industry,” 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
===The Need for Cheap Indoor Illuminants===<br />
<br />
The future of oil changed in 1846. Abraham Gessner, who was trained as a physician in England but spent his life in geological work in his native Canada instead, was performing public lectures in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. During one demonstration Gessner showed how oil distilled from bituminous coal could be used to light a lamp. He called the distillate "kerosene" and those in attendance that day were on hand for the birth of the oil refining industry.<ref>University of Toronto and Université Laval, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0802031420/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0802031420&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=482f4cc61e4492d5e6531b9cd0d8bea4" Dictionary of Canadian Biography]'', (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1959).</ref><br />
<br />
Indoor illuminants at the time relied on whale oil which was, of course, difficult and dangerous to obtain and expensive - $2.50 a gallon at a time when a good day's wage was less than one dollar.<ref> Yergin, Daniel, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1439110123/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1439110123&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=21a0f7a0b3af8bba352e4e953ec2949c The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power]'', (New York: Free Press, 1991).</ref> Kerosene burned smokily and smelled awful but tinkerers soon discovered that a lamp with a glass chimney solved both problems. Finding petroleum for these proliferating cheap "kerosene lamps" stoked the fire of the day's entrepreneurs.<br />
<br />
===Enter a Visionary===<br />
[[File:George_Henry_Bissell_by_Gurney,_1860s.jpg|thumbnail|left|255px|George Henry Bissell.]]<br />
George Henry Bissell was not one of those obsessed with kerosene. Rather, in 1853 he was a 32-year old struggling lawyer when he saw samples of "rock oil" from western Pennsylvania on the campus of Dartmouth College in his hometown of Hanover, New Hampshire. When he saw how readily the inky black liquid burned Bissell immediately saw its potential as an illuminant and not as a medicinal salve. Furthermore, it became Bissell's plan to drill for the oil in a way that salt had been obtained for hundreds of years.<br />
<br />
Bissell commissioned a report from one of the leading scientists of the day, Benjamin Silliman, Jr., to verify the energy potential of rock oil and began making the rounds in New York City to convince investors in his scheme. There were not many takers in the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company. Bissell's partner James Townsend reported after one pitch that the naysayers chided him: "Oh, Townsend, oil coming out of the ground, pumping oil out of the earth as you pump water? Nonsense! You're crazy.”<ref>Giddens, Paul H., ''The Birth of the Oil Industry'', (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1938), p. 48.</ref><br />
<br />
===The Dream Comes Together===<br />
[[File:704px-Edwindrake.jpg|thumbnail|175px|Edwin Drake]]<br />
Bissell and Townsend trundled on, spewing their plans for most anyone who would listen. One who listened and was intrigued enough to buy a few shares in the enterprise was Edwin Drake, who lived in the same hotel as Townsend. Drake, it was decided, would be the man to helm the first drilling project. At thirty-eight years of age, he boasted no special training and no experience. He had worked for the railroad as a station clerk and a freight agent and a conductor but had been forced to retire due to infirmity.<ref>Dav, Urja, “Edwin Drake and the Oil Well Drill Pipe,” 2008.</ref> Drake's main qualifications as a drilling engineer were, one, that he was available and, two, his lifetime railroad pass enabled him to ride back and forth to Pennsylvania for free. That was no small consideration for the newly renamed Seneca Oil Company.<br />
<br />
Drake's train pulled into the flea speck town of Titusville, population 150, in the spring of 1858. Jonathan Titus was a surveyor with Samuel Kerr for the Holland Land Company in 1800 when the men bought up land and platted a townsite.<ref>Weber, David L., ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/073853630X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=073853630X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=ae3417762ba8d2bb4ff173422738542f Images of America: Around Titusville]'', (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Press, 1994).</ref> Lumber was the prime economic engine but the surrounding hillsides were quite nearly stripped bare by mid-century and when the timber was gone it was expected that Titusville would soon be as well.<br />
<br />
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<br />
Bissell had taken to referring to Drake as "Colonel" in correspondence sent to Pennsylvania, although the closest Drake had ever come to the military was punching soldiers’ tickets on the train. In doing so Bissell hoped to provide Drake some agency among the workers in the hardscrabble backwoods and that authority indeed proved useful in recruiting fresh crews as "the Colonel" failed in one drilling attempt after another. The townsfolk took to calling the operation down on Oil Creek "Drake's Folly."<br />
<br />
===Perseverance, Redemption and Success===<br />
<br />
He tried a steam engine but the soft sand in the stream continually collapsed around his shaft. With each grim report dispatched to Bissell's office in New Haven, Connecticut the investors clenched the purse strings a little tighter. But what Edwin Drake lacked in technical expertise he more than made up for in the quintessential American trait - stick-to-itiveness. <br />
<br />
Drake overcame the obstacle of the collapsing oil seeps by driving an iron pipe down into the earth and drilling inside it - a technique that the modern petrochemical industry uses today. When he reached bedrock and still no oil was found Drake borrowed money from his friends to keep drilling when funds from Seneca Oil was slow to arrive. Finally, on August 27, 1859, at a depth of 69 feet, history's first oil well came in.<ref>American Chemical Society, "The Development of the Pennsylvania Oil Industry," 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
The world had never seen anything like what happened next. Derricks sprouted along Oil Creek within days. The word "boomtown" was coined to describe the settlements that swelled to over 10,000 residents in weeks. Bissell sped towards Titusville and bought up every farm he could find for Seneca Oil. Within a year there were more than 75 wells producing oil in western Pennsylvania - enough crude to spark the construction of full-blown refineries.<br />
<br />
===Boom…then Bust===<br />
<br />
While certainly exciting, those initial wells were modest affairs by today's standards. The oil was still pumped out of the ground each time it was discovered. But 30 months after Drake's first well the world's first "gusher" came in, with oil literally exploding from inside the earth. Production soon spiked to over three million barrels a day from barely half a million barrels. The glut sent prices spiraling for $10 a barrel to 50 cents.<ref>Yergin, Daniel, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1439110123/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1439110123&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=21a0f7a0b3af8bba352e4e953ec2949c The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power]'', (New York: Free Press, 1991).</ref><br />
<br />
The crash ruined speculators, one of whom was Edwin Drake. George Bissell held on through the crisis and emerged a wealthy man when prices rebounded and new uses for petroleum were discovered. Drake also had never bothered to patent his oil drilling technique. He spent the last years of his life reduced to writing friends to beg for money. In 1873, as he lived out his final days in infirmity, the state of Pennsylvania eased his troubles by issuing him a small lifetime pension in recognition of his contributions to the development of Keystone State industry.<br />
<br />
As it turned out, Drake had been extremely lucky in choosing his drilling spot on a small island in Oil Creek. If he had sunk his iron pipe just a few feet to the left or to the right it would have required another 100 feet of perseverance and funding to strike oil. But the question of whether Edwin Drake had enough remaining of either does not need to be asked.<br />
<br />
While others around him were cashing in fortunes after his discovery on Oil Creek, Drake was more concerned with securing his legacy in some of his last writings: "I claim that I did invent the driving Pipe and drive it and without that they could not bore on bottom lands when the earth is full of water. And I claim to have bored the first well that ever was bored for the Petroleum in America and can show the well. If I had not done it, it would have not been done to this day.”<ref>Yergin, Daniel, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1439110123/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1439110123&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=21a0f7a0b3af8bba352e4e953ec2949c The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power]'', (New York: Free Press, 1991), p. 26.</ref><br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<references/><br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[What Were the Circumstances Surrounding the Death of "Stonewall" Jackson?]]<br />
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*[[Was the Destruction Perpetrated by Lincoln, Grant, and Sherman Necessary to End the Civil War?]]<br />
*[[The Best Historians and Books According to James McPherson]]<br />
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[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:United States History]] [[Category:History of Science and Technology]][[Category:Economic History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
{{Mediawiki:US History}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_steps_did_Germany_take_to_start_the_Second_World_War_in_Europe&diff=13756What steps did Germany take to start the Second World War in Europe2018-11-22T21:17:40Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
<hr />
<div>__NOTOC__<br />
[[File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173,_Münchener_Abkommen,_Staatschefs.jpg|left|thumbnail|300px|Neville Chamberlain, Edouard Daladier, Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Graff Galeazzo Ciano before Munich Agreement Sept. 9, 1938]]<br />
The second world war (1939-1945) was the most destructive war in human history. It is believed that between 35 and 50 million people died in the conflict.<ref> Bell, P. M. H. (1986). ''The Origins of the Second World War in Europe''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 326.</ref> There are many causes of this conflict, including nationalism and the failure of the League of Nations, but ultimately the primary cause of the greatest conflict in human history was National Socialist Party's ideology and Germany's aggressive policies.<br />
<br />
====Background==== <br />
The Treaty of Versailles, that ended the first world war, is perhaps the most controversial peace treaty in history; ‘many have judged it to be too harsh and others have judged it to be not harsh enough.’<ref>Bell, p.77.</ref> Germany and the other defeated Central powers lost territory, had their military forces limited and were obliged to pay reparations. Germany was especially treated harshly. The German public was outraged when the Treaty’s terms were publicized because they believed that Germany had neither started the war nor been decisively defeated on the battlefield. The Treaty was treated Germany as if had been conquered and they felt that was both their country unfairly and inaccurate. Germany lost about one-fifth of its territory as a result of the Treaty. Overnight millions of Germans became citizens of other countries, such as Poland. The Treaty legally limited the size and scope of the German armed forces which was intended to prevent that the country from starting another war. The National Socialists benefitted from the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles helped the rise of the Party . It allowed them to not only justify their aggressive policies but portray Germany as the true victim of the Great War.<ref>Bell, p. 144.</ref> <br />
<br />
In the 1930s, Europe was a divided continent. There were still bitter disputes over borders. The Treaty of Versailles had redrawn the border of Europe but it seemed to have satisfied no one.<ref> Finney, Patrick. ''The Origins of the Second World War''. Penguin Books: Hamondsworth, p. 48.</ref> These ongoing disputes meant that the political class still regularly used nationalism to retain power. There were almost no functioning democracies in Europe at this time and there were many military dictatorships. The continent was also divided between the left and the right. Almost every society was internally divided between communists and socialists and those who opposed them.<ref>Finney, p. 57.</ref> Then in many countries fascism had made great strides often because of a fear of communism. Europe was unstable and it seemed likely that the continent would descend into another conflict. This was to occur in 1939 and it was caused by the ambitions of the National Socialist government in Germany and its extreme ideology.<br />
<br />
====National Socialist Ideology====<br />
[[File:Adolf_Hitler_Portraet.jpg|thumbnail|250px|left|Portrait of Adolf Hitler in 1933]]<br />
The National Socialist ideology was premised on the idea that the German people were ‘the master race’ and they were biologically superior to other people. It was genuinely believed that Germans were physically mentally and morally superior to races such as the Slavs in Eastern Europe. This led to the belief that the German people should dominate the other races in Europe. The party’s leader preached that other races such as the Jews were determined to prevent the German people from achieving their destiny.<ref> Paxton, Robert (2005). ''The Anatomy of Fascism''. London: Penguin Books Ltd., p 123</ref> <br />
<br />
Their ideology also demanded that all Germans live in a German state and they wanted all non-Germans expelled from Germany. The National Socialists believed that the German people had the right to ‘living space’ in order to create a great nation. The Nazi’s saw international relations as a struggle for power and that only the strongest nations would survive. As a result, they rejected all forms of international law and ignored the League of Nations, the precursor of the United Nations. Their ideology, reflecting a perverse and distorted version of the beliefs advanced by the German philosopher Nietzsche, developed a moral code where strength was admirable and that might was always right. Because the National Socialist Party leaders’ worshiped power and strength they admired war and believed is was necessary for the good of the nation.<ref>Paxton, p. 117.</ref> Hitler firmly believed that his nation’s greatness would be determined by its military strength.<br />
<br />
====Rearmament and Expansionism==== <br />
Hitler had achieved power by constitutional means in 1933. He soon established an authoritarian state with himself as the all-powerful leader or Führer. The German government was determined to end the Treaty of Versailles. Their ideology encouraged government to embark on two policies that greatly destabilized Europe and led directly to war. These were military rearmament and territorial expansion.<ref>Hillgruber, Andreas (1995). ''Germany and the Two World Wars'', translated by William C. Kirby, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, p. 67.</ref><br />
<br />
<dh-ad/><br />
<br />
Under the Treaty of Versailles, the German army was limited to 100,000 men. After 1933, the Germany ignored these limitations and expanded the military. The country also began an ambitious rearmament program. This at first did not alarm other nations but as the German army and navy grew in numbers they became extremely worried. This was especially the case after the German army occupied the Rhineland, which was technically, under a de-militarized zone. Hitler was technically breaking international law but the western allies were reluctant to challenge Germany over their rearmament program. Rearmament was a key component of the National Socialist's policy. The growing might of Germany alarmed its neighbors and by 1939 there was a full blown arms race throughout Europe and various nations were readying for war. <br />
<br />
Immediately Germany began aggressive efforts to seize land that it felt entitled to. It also required that all Germans be united in the Third Reich. This led the government to embark on a policy of expansion and this included recovering lands lost to the French, Czechs and Poles. Beginning in 1936 the German army had reoccupied the Rhineland in defiance of international law and the Versailles Treaty.<ref>Young, Robert (1996). ''France and the Origins of the Second World War'', New York : St. Martin's Press, p. 78.</ref> Germany then engineered a unification between it and Austria, in what was known as the Anschluss. Germany then turned their attention to Czechoslovakia. There was a large ethnic German population in the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia and the German government wanted them to re-join Germany. <ref>Young, p. 111.</ref> Germany then threatened war in Czechoslovakia. Britain and France, who had adopted a policy of appeasement to prevent a war, encouraged the Czech’s to give up the Sudetenland. After occupying the Sudetenland, Hitler then occupied the rest of the country, despite the Munich agreement. This became known as the ‘Rape of Czechoslovakia’.<ref>Hillgruber, Andreas (1995). ''Germany and the Two World Wars'', translated by William C. Kirby, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, p. 67.</ref> Territorial expansion and disregard for international treaties was a key part of government policy. These aggressive actions made war inevitable. <br />
<br />
====Road to War====<br />
In 1939 the rest of Europe were preparing for war. The British and French had been betrayed and humiliated by the ‘Rape of Czechoslovakia’.<ref> Hilgruber, Andreas (1995). ''Germany and the Two World Wars'', translated by William C. Kirby, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, p. 67.</ref> Hitler had won territory without war and had largely dismantled the Treaty of Versailles. Germany again was the leading country in Europe. However, the National Socialist ideology and its extreme views meant that Hitler had to seek even more land and engage in confrontations with other nations. Germany sought war in order to further its objectives. In 1939, despite the tensions in Europe, Germany demanded the return from Poland of territory that was inhabited by ethnic Germans. If Warsaw had agreed to this, it would have lost its only port. The German government was warned not to invade Poland by France and Britain. London and Paris both signed a treaty with Poland and they guaranteed her security and sovereignty. Despite knowing that any invasion of Poland would plunge Europe into war, Germany invaded. Furthermore, the ideology of the German government was one that stressed the value of war and stated that the Germans as the ‘master race’ would win this conflict. In September 1939, the German army invaded Poland and the Second World War had started in Europe.<ref>Bell, P. M. H. (1986). ''The Origins of the Second World War in Europe''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 346.</ref><br />
<br />
====Conclusion====<br />
In the 1930s Europe was very unstable. The rise of fascism and the ascent of Nazis in Germany destabilized Europe. Their racist and nationalistic ideology meant that they believed other nations and people were their enemies. More importantly,the Nazis promoted a toxic belief that Germans were the ‘master race’ and above any international laws or moral standards. These beliefs pushed them towards war with Europe. <br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
<br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
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*[[How Did the German Military Develop Blitzkrieg?]]<br />
*[[Why was France defeated in 1940?]]<br />
*[[Why did Germany lose the Battle of Stalingrad?]]<br />
</div><br />
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<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:German History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:World War Two History]] [[Category:Political History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_were_the_Root_Causes_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War&diff=13754What were the Root Causes of the Spanish Civil War2018-11-22T21:17:39Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:662px-Official_Francisco_Franco.jpg|thumbnail|left|General Francisco Franco in 1936]] <br />
__NOTOC__<br />
The Spanish Civil War was one of the bloodiest wars in Twentieth Century in Europe. The war was not simply a Spanish affair, but drew in other several other nations, including Italy, Portugal, Germany and the Soviet Union. The war was a result of many factors, some of which will be discussed here. The main cause of the Spanish Civil War, was the failure of Spanish democracy. This was because there was a refusal by the Spanish parties and groups to compromise and respect democratic norms. <br />
<br />
====Background====<br />
Spain was a very divided, unstable and weak country in the 19th century. Once a great power, Spain lost almost the last of its colonies after it defeat in the Spanish-American war.<ref>Vincent, Mary (2007). ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0198731590/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0198731590&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=ffee06581c91b4c78b72eef90c3e858f Spain, 1833–2002]''. Oxford, UK; New York: Oxford University Press</ref> It was technically a monarchy, but power had frequently been in the hands of military dictators. The country was bitterly divided. The acute poverty of the Spanish people meant that many were drawn to Communism, Anarchism and Socialism. <ref>Beevor, Antony (2006). ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/014303765X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=014303765X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b54b43da8965b066ed125b18696e983b The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939]''. London, UK: Weidenfield and Nicolson</ref> These ideologies call for popular governments and the re-distribution of resources, such as land and wealth. <br />
<br />
Spanish anarchists, socialists and communists were secular and wanted to remove the influence of the Catholic Church from Spanish society. The elite and the middle class were especially conservative. They dominated the economy and feared that the Communists would confiscate their property. This is typified in the fact that much of the best land in Spain was owned by a relatively small proportion of the population. Furthermore, the wealthy and the middle class, especially in rural society was Catholics and resisted any idea that there should be a separation of Church in State in Spain.<ref>Lannon, Frances (1987). ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0198219237/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0198219237&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=5cd638cac74ee91552e49fa7893cba18 Privilege, Persecution, and Prophecy: The Catholic Church in Spain, 1875–1975]''. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press</ref> The elite and the rich landowners, the ‘agrarian oligarchy’ were terrified of communism, especially after the Russian Revolution in 1917. <br />
<br />
By 1930, Spain was bitterly divided on social and ideological lines. Spain was and is a diverse society.<ref>Beevor, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/014303765X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=014303765X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b54b43da8965b066ed125b18696e983b The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939]''</ref> There are many areas of the country with strong regional or national identities. Many of the regions in Spain, such as the Catalans, demanded more autonomy or even outright independence from Madrid, such as the Basques. The tensions between the regions and the central government meant that the country was inherently unstable, as compromise was impossibly, between the parties.<br />
<br />
====The Failure of Spanish Government====<br />
Spain had been neutral during the First World War. However, this had not made the country peaceful or prosperous. In the wake of the ending of the WWI, there was a major economic slump.<ref>Beevor, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/014303765X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=014303765X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b54b43da8965b066ed125b18696e983b The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939]''</ref> The working class and the rural poor suffered greatly at this time and they began to organize themselves and they were often led by Communists and Anarchists. At this time the Trade Unions in Spain became very strong and there were widespread strikes. In the countryside impoverished peasants began to seize land. To many in the elite it seemed as if the country was on the brink of Communist revolution. Miguel Primo de Rivera, with the support of the monarchy and army launched a coup and came to power in 1923, and he became dictator of Spain. He was a monarchists and conservative and did nothing to reform the country and especially to alleviate the plight of the poor.<ref>Beevor, ''Battle for Spain''</ref> De Rivera soon became very unpopular and tensions in the country increased and he was forced to resign. In 1931, The Spanish monarch resigned. It seemed that Spain had an opportunity to begin a new era and to become a true democracy, after elections were held.<br />
<br />
====Second Republic====<br />
A new constitution was introduced in 1931 ad it was a liberal document that guaranteed human rights and basic freedoms. The Constitution also separated the Church and State. Elections were again held in 1932. In the first elections under the Constitution in 1933, an alliance of right wing and center right parties came to power. Despite the establishment of democracy there was no stability.<ref>Paul Preston (2012). <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0393345912/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0393345912&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=fc45d15b83a9c9cf0ca5218641839bc6 The Spanish Holocaust: Inquisition and Extermination in Twentieth-Century Spain]</i>. London, UK: HarperCollins</ref> This was partly a result of the economic consequences caused by the Great Depression. The left, including the Communists and the Trade Unions continued to press for their agendas.<ref>Beevor, ''[http://%5Bhttps://www.amazon.com/gp/product/014303765X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=014303765X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b54b43da8965b066ed125b18696e983b%20The%20Battle%20for%20Spain:%20The%20Spanish%20Civil%20War%201936–1939%5D Battle for Spain]''</ref> They sought the nationalization of industry and the redistribution of land to the poor. The first democratically elected government was constantly undermined by General Strikes and local left wing revolts. In particular there was a revolt by miners in Asturias, which was suppressed by the army. The left could not simply abide by the outcome of the election and instead of achieving their goals by constitutional means, they opted for violent methods. <ref>Vincent, Mary (2007). ''Spain, 1833–2002''. Oxford, UK; New York: Oxford University Press</ref><br />
[[File: Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-11543,_Madrid,_Ausrufung_der_Zweiten_Spanischen_Republik.jpg|thumbnail|The proclamation of the Second Republic in Madrid]]<br />
A weakened government eventually collapsed and new elections were called for 1936. The General Election saw a victory for a left-wing alliance of parties, including Communists, Anarchists and Socialists. This government was also supported by regional parties. They immediately launched an ambitious program of reforms, especially land reform to meet the ‘expectations of the urban and rural poor’, that antagonize many in the Spanish elite.<ref>Preston, 7.</ref> Many Spaniards believed that a communist revolution was imminent.<br />
<br />
“They eyed with mounting alarm the red flags and banners and portraits of Lenin, Stalin and Largo Caballero on huge placards, and listened to the chanting of the demonstrators, demanding the formation of a proletarian government and a people’s army’’.<ref> Beevor, 124.</ref><br />
<br />
<dh-ad/><br />
<br />
In response right-wing extremists such as the Falange militia began a violent campaign against the left-wing government. The right could not accept that the Left was the legitimate governments and believed that they were entitled to use violence means to secure their position and interests.<br />
<br />
====Countdown to Civil War====<br />
It was clear by 1936 that Spain was on the edge of a major confrontation between the left and the right and between the regions. There began a series of political assassinations. The right openly called for the military to stage a coup to oust the left wing government, which some saw as only the puppets of the Soviet Union. Much of the Spanish Army was stationed in the country’s last colonies in Morocco.<ref>Beevor, ''Battle for Spain''</ref> <br />
<br />
The left-wing government believed that the military was too far away from Spain because the government was losing control of the situation and there was fighting between the Falange militia and the police on the streets of several cities, resulting in many deaths. Then the Spanish Army Generals, led by General Franco, launched a coup, they managed to fly their forces, with the assistance of the German government to Spain. The arrival of regular Spanish units from Morocco on the Spanish mainland was the trigger for an all-out war that was to ‘leave half-a-million people dead.’<ref>Preston</ref><br />
<br />
====Conclusion====<br />
The Spanish Civil War was caused by many factors, including major socio-economic problems, such as poverty and inequality. However, the main cause was all sides’ failure to compromise and to respect the rights and opinions of others. This meant that the Second Republic, could never provide a government that could bring stability and prosperity to the country. Political violence became endemic in the country as a consequence and it escalated until it became a full scale civil war. <br />
<br />
====Related DailyHistory.org Articles====<br />
*[[What were the goals of the Axis powers and the Soviet Union during World War Two?]]<br />
*[[How Did the German Military Develop Blitzkrieg?]]<br />
*[[Causes of World War II Top Ten Booklist]]<br />
*[[How did Winston Churchill become Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in World War Two?]]<br />
*[[How did Mussolini become Prime Minister of Italy?]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
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{{Mediawiki:Spanish Civil War}}<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=When_did_abortion_become_legal_in_the_United_States&diff=13755When did abortion become legal in the United States2018-11-22T21:17:39Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
<hr />
<div>__NOTOC__<br />
[[File:Storer.jpg|thumbnail|left|600px|Dr. Horatio Storer]]<br />
While the simple answer might be 1973 with the ''Roe v. Wade'' decision, the history of abortion’s decriminalization occurred on a state-by-state basis—much like its criminalization. <br />
<br />
In colonial America, abortion was dealt with in a manner according to English common law. Abortion was typically only frowned upon, or penalized, when it occurred after “quickening,”—when a woman felt fetal movement—because it suggested that the fetus had manifested into its own separate being. Quickening could vary from women to woman, and sometimes as late as four months. Additionally, it was only penalized because it was typically seen as some kind cover-up for improper sexual relations.<br />
<br />
States began to draft abortion legislation in the first half of the 19th century and by 1880, every state had an abortion statute. Most of these early abortion statutes were designed to protect women from medical quacks far from the established centers of American medicine—Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, for example. These early statutes (for the most part) punished only the provider of the abortion, not the woman, and either did not apply to physicians, or did not apply if the abortion was necessary to preserve the life of the woman. Therefore, except under these special circumstances, abortion was illegal. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, women continued to acquire abortions—whether they were illegal or not. Until 1930, it was actually safer for women to acquire an abortion than it was for them to carry a child to term. For that reason, many women probably risked a questionable abortion. The black market’s translation into high profits compelled some physicians to specialize in the procedure, or to provide them under more generous circumstances (for example, to protect the woman’s life or health). <br />
<br />
As abortions became black market commodities, late 19th century Americans—writers, journalists, preachers, and physicians—began to describe abortion with a moral absolutism that had never existed before.<br />
<br />
===Social Context & Legislation===<br />
This change didn’t occur within a vacuum, however. In the late 19th century, targeting abortions and abortion providers—like midwives and “irregulars”—occurred within the context of the professionalization of the medical field. Individuals like Dr. Horatio Storer attempted to legitimate themselves as professional medical men, and they did so at others’ expense. In claiming that pregnancy and childbirth were not natural events, where women and midwives could maintain authority, they argued that pregnancy and childbirth were medical conditions requiring physician intervention. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, this new generation of physicians declared that abortion represented women’s selfishness and “antenatal infanticide" in an era marked by concerns about race suicide and white women’s reproductive rates.<br />
<br />
Throughout the 20th century, law enforcement continued to enforce local abortion statutes with limited success. Due to the nature of this criminal activity—specifically how legally ambiguous it was—it was often difficult to bring an abortion case to trial unless a woman died from the procedure. Under these conditions, it perpetuated the idea that abortions were dangerous procedures, and reformers and AMA members latched onto it with as much zeal and vigor as possible in order to advance their goals.<br />
<br />
The Depression and advancements in medical technology changed things for women seeking abortions in the 1920s and 1930s. Sterilization of equipment, specialization, and, later, antibiotics, all worked together to decrease mortality. So while the procedures themselves became much safer, law enforcement also recognized that this created an opportunity to put patients on the stand to testify against providers of illegal abortions. Because of increased restriction in the 1940s and 1950s, more women were forced to seek out illegal abortions in substandard conditions.<br />
<br />
===Towards Legalization===<br />
[[File:32936173946 bc0836c5c5 o.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Roe v. Wade]]<br />
The most notorious example of the dangers of illegal abortion became lionized in the cover of Ms. Magazine in 1973 when they depicted the 1964 death of Gerri Santoro. By the 1960s, the public perception of illegal abortions was that they were dirty and dangerous. American women were also acquiring illegal abortions in Mexico, which also contributed to the idea that they were illicit. Whether acquiring a back alley abortion in her hometown, two towns over, or across a national border, many women risked the unknown in order to acquire a measure of reproductive control. <br />
<br />
The rise of these illicit abortions actually compelled some legislators in border cities to revisit their stance on abortion. Beginning in 1962, legislators in San Diego, California for example seemed to recognize there was a need to standardize abortion laws in the wake of the number of women ignoring them altogether.<br />
<br />
There were several attempts to standardize American abortion law. The American Law Institute, for example, attempted to draft a model law for abortion in the United States that allowed for legal abortions under the conditions that most legislators approved of: in order to protect the life of the mother, if the pregnancy resulted from rape or incest, or if the fetus was likely to be deformed or ill. <br />
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<dh-ad/><br />
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Some states began to revise their abortion statutes based on the model law. In 1967, for example, California’s governor Ronald Reagan, passed the Therapeutic Abortion Act, which allowed for legal abortions when physicians believed a woman’s life or mental health would be at risk, or when District Attorneys believed the pregnancy resulted from rape or incest. Other states drafted similar legislation.<br />
<br />
Other factors contributed to easing of abortion restrictions. Specifically, a Rubella, or German measles, outbreak in the 1950s lead some physicians to believe that pregnant women who had been exposed to illness should receive abortions since exposure was likely to cause birth defects. Additionally, the Thalidomide disaster in the 1960s helped to push for legal abortion on demand. Thalidomide, a drug given to pregnant women in order to treat morning sickness or to reduce anxiety, ended up becoming one of the greatest pharmaceutical tragedies as it was soon discovered that Thalidomide actually contributed to children being born with malformed limbs. With the Thalidomide and Rubella incidents, it became apparent that existing abortion laws did not protect loving parents and nuclear families. Once the issue of nuclear families and family planning came to the fore, it became apparent that abortion could not simply be reduced to a discussion about illicit sex or immorality. Rather, it was something that even respectable families demanded, too.<br />
<br />
In 1967, Dr. Leon Belous was arrested for referring a woman to an abortionist for an illegal abortion. As Dr. Belous took his case to the California Supreme Court, other states began to draft their own suits against their existing abortion statutes—particularly once it became obvious that Dr. Belous and his legal council intended to challenge the law, and not just his circumstances.<br />
<br />
When the California Supreme Court ruled in ''People v. Belous'', they recognized that California’s existing statute actually prevented physicians from performing their duties well, and it violated physicians’ due process. They also struck down the recent Therapeutic Abortion Act because they believed it was “void for vagueness.” Specifically, there was no way to determine when a woman’s life was in danger, or at risk, and there was no good standard with which to measure risk since it would violate the woman’s right to equal protection if her death had to be imminent in order to procure an abortion. When the California Supreme Court struck down their Therapeutic Abortion Act, they were unable to rephrase the statute in a way that allowed clarified it, thereby opening the door for California women to access abortion on demand.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not until ''Roe v. Wade'' in 1973 that the United States Supreme Court ultimately settled the issue. Jane Roe, a Texas resident, sought to terminate her pregnancy but Texas only allowed abortions in cases when a woman’s life was in danger. In the case, Roe’s attorneys argued that the Texas abortion statute was vague, and that it violated a woman’s constitutional rights.<br />
<br />
In a 7-2 decision, the U.S. Supreme Court held that a woman’s right to an abortion fell within the right to privacy as had been recognized in ''Griswold v. Connecticut'' (1965) and that it was protected by the 14th Amendment.<br />
<br />
The ''Roe'' decision gave women autonomy over their pregnancies during the first trimester, and allowed states to regulate or restrict abortions during the second and third trimester. As a result, abortion statutes in the remanding states were struck down and determined to be unconstitutional.<br />
<br />
===Bilbiography===<br />
Linda Gordon, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0252027647/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0252027647&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=63fbae3d85d23e43dbfbe1cdc3f7ee52 The Moral Property of Women: A History of Birth Control Politics in America]''. Urbana: The University of Illinois Press, 2007.<br />
<br />
James C. Mohr, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0195026160/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0195026160&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=9d369cfdb50c0b9c7f100f099539da6f Abortion in America: The Origins and Evolution of National Policy]''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979.<br />
<br />
Leslie J. Reagan, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520216571/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520216571&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=8e59bb2b7842c2e0a3b80951c0dc9670 When Abortion was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-1973]''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.<br />
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{{Mediawiki:Medical History}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:Women's History]] [[Category:Gender History]] [[Category:Gender and Sexuality]] [[Category:United States History]] [[Category:Medical History]]<br />
<br />
{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_Mother%27s_Day_develop&diff=13753How did Mother's Day develop2018-11-22T21:17:38Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>[[File:1755212 ac630ac2.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Figure 1. Mothering Sunday is a popular holiday in Catholic and Protestant countries in Europe.]]__NOTOC__<br />
Mother's Day, or sometimes called Mothering Day or Mothering Sunday, represents a holiday in celebration of mothers and motherhood. While the concept is fairly standard in many countries, it is also among the least uniform holidays, as many countries have celebrated this holiday from ancient periods. In the United States, Mother Day formally began in the early 20th century.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Early Origin of Mother's Day====<br />
Mother's Day is a common observance, both religious and secular versions, in many countries, including Christian, Muslim, and other countries. The early history of the holiday connect to the ancient Near East, Greek, and other Old World cultures that celebrated the mother goddess, such as Cybele, Rhea in Greek mythology, and other similar versions of either mother goddesses or important wives of gods. There is no ancient source that mentions a designated day called Mother's Day, but traditions of celebrating motherhood and, more broadly, the rearing of children have existed perhaps at least since the Pleistocene (i.e., before 12,000 years ago). The celebration of fertility, childbearing, child-rearing, and motherhood were important to past societies that often had high death rates in childhood but also for mothers. Flowers, a key symbol of life, were often associated with motherhood and nurture. Celebrations included offering and sacrifices to the mother goddess for good luck. Many of these celebrations took place around the time of the spring equinox (March 20), a time often associated with spring renewal, fertility, and life, but the celebration also occurred at other times of the year.<ref>For more on the influence of Mother goddesses and religious association with Mother's Day traditions internationally, see: Borgeaud, P. (2004). <i>Mother of the gods: from Cybele to the Virgin Mary</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press </ref> <br />
<br />
The popularity of Mother's Day, or the celebration of motherhood, continued into the Christian Era. In fact, many aspects of sacred motherhood, associated with earlier religions, were ascribed to the Virgin Mary. The fourth Sunday of the Lent season was often reserved to remember the Virgin Mary and also to bless motherhood and mothers, which is the day that became known as Mothering Sunday in Christian Europe (Figure 1). Similar to the pre-Christian traditions, this was used as a way to pray for the safety and health of mothers in particular due to the difficulties of childbearing. Thus, traditionally in Catholic and even Protestant countries that adopted the tradition, Mothering Sunday was celebrated exactly three weeks before Easter. This explains why Europe often has a different date in celebrating Mother's Day, which Mothering Day later transformed to.<ref>For more on celebrations of Mothering Sunday, see: Ozihel, Harding. (2011). <i>Mothering Sunday</i>. Frac Press.</ref><br />
<br />
In 16th century, Mothering Sunday became associated with people returning to their mother church. Symbols that were associated with the Virgin Mary, during the Protestant Reformation, led to alternative symbolism for Mothering Sunday. In Protestant Europe, this meant the church became the mother of its flock and people. People would then return to their home churches on Mothering Sunday.<ref>For more on the tradition of returning to your mother church, see: Keene, M. (1998). <i>Introducing Christianity</i>. Berkhamsted: Arthur James.</ref><br />
<br />
====Modern Holiday====<br />
[[File:Ann Jarvis.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Figure 2. Ann Jarvis became the woman who inspired Mother's Day in the United States.]]<br />
In the United States, Mother's Day developed its own traditions, where it ironically became popular from a woman who never had children. Ann Jarvis (Figure 2), who organized meetings between mothers from opposing sides in the Civil War, attempted to create a day to remember mothers. Her goal was to help reunite families after the war through the creation of what she called Mother's Friendship Day. Others, such as Julian Howe, tried to also create a remembrance day for mothers. These ideas received some local support but never spread in popularity across the United States. Ann Jarvis did, however, inspired her daughter, Anna Jarvis. After the elder Jarvis died, Anna helped create the first modern US Mother's Day celebration in Grafton, West Virginia. Anna wanted it to simply be a day to remember her mother for her sacrifice in the local church because that is where her mother taught Sunday School. That day was May 12, 1905, which was 3 days after Ann had died. <br />
<br />
Anna, however, became inspired to make this not just a one-time celebration but something relevant to all mothers who sacrifice for their children. She was also inspired by the fact that much celebration focused on male achievement but rarely on women, particularly mothers who often were instrumental for their children's success. In 1908, a larger, official celebration was held in Philadelphia due to her persistence and help from a business owner John Wanamaker, who helped her establish a space for a larger celebration. Before the decade had finished, many churches and secular places began holding Mother's Day celebrations in eastern US cities. Effectively, What Ann could not achieve in life became achieve through her death and her daughter Anna's efforts.<ref>For more on the history of Mother's Day in the United States, see: Antolini, K. L. (2014). <i>Memorializing motherhood: Anna Jarvis and the struggle for control of Mother’s Day</i> (First edition). Morgantown: West Virginia University Press. </ref><br />
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By 1910, West Virginia was the first state to recognize Mother's Day, with other states quickly following. Jarvis had begun to actively campaign to have the day remembered as Mother's Day. White carnations, Ann's favorite flower and used by Anna as the symbol of her mother, became associated with Mother's Day and the House of Representatives passed a proclamation in 1913 making it the official flower worn by government employees on the Monday after Mother's Day. By 1914, an act of Congress officially declared the second Sunday in May as Mother's Day. As World War I was about to start, Mother's Day even became more poignant as a celebration of mothers who gave up their sons in times of war.<ref>For more on how Mother's Day became an official holiday, see: Garrigues, L., & Garrigues, L. (2008). <i>Writing motherhood</i>. New York: Scribner. </ref> <br />
<br />
As the US holiday became established, some of its traditions began to influence other countries and their often older Mother's Day (or Mothering Sunday) traditions. For instance, sending flowers and candy to one's mother was not a typical form of celebration in many countries but the US version of such gifts began to be adopted by others. In fact, traditions mixing local customs and celebrations of mothers intermixed with US-style celebrations. While Mother's Day often looks similar in many countries, the dates are often different because of this mixing of traditions.<ref> For more on the development of Mother's Day internationally, see: O’Reilly, A. (Ed.). (2010). <i>Encyclopedia of motherhood</i>. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, pg. 858.</ref><br />
<br />
====Recent Developments====<br />
Interestingly, after the full adoption of Mother's Day by the US government under Woodrow Wilson, the holiday began to become more commercialized. Already by 1920, the holiday began to be associated with buying a box of chocolates, cards, and flowers for one's mother. This commercialization became denounced none other than Anna Jarvis. The only symbols she wanted were the white carnations, but marketers had other ideas. People began to see it as a day to treat their mothers, to take her away from housework, and also spoil mothers. This meant buying all sorts of products and going to a meal some place for Mother's Day. Advertisers encouraged this offering special deals and other benefits. The floral industry, which Anna had seen as her allies initially soon came into conflict with Anna, who decried their commercial tendencies to increase flower sales on Mother's Day. Anna had such a falling out that she wanted the holiday rescinded as an official day, as she saw that it had become nothing more than a commercial venture. In 1948, the year Anna had died, she had spent much of her remaining money on legal fees fighting what she considered was the abuse of the meaning of Mother's Day through various lawsuits.<ref>For more on Anna Jarvis' later attempts against the commercialization of the holiday, see: Antolini 2017</ref><br />
<br />
While Anna ultimately lost her battle against Mother's Day commercialism, where in fact it is today one of the biggest days for spending outside of Christmas, Mother's Day also became symbolically important for other causes. Mother's Day, still one of the few holidays celebrating women, has become, at least in the United States, associated with feminist and minority causes. Protests for greater childcare benefits and paid time off for mothers to nurture their young children have become popular causes that now use Mother's Day as an annual day for awareness. On the other hand, for some, Mother's Day is seen for a call for more celebrating and trying to get society to see the benefits of traditional motherhood and family.<ref>For more on the later significance of Mother's Day, see: Burrell, B. C. (2004). <i>Women and political participation: a reference handbook</i>. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, pg. 34. </ref><br />
<br />
====Summary====<br />
Mother's Day is both an ancient and relatively modern holiday. In the United States, its traditions were mostly secular, although celebrated initially in church. For other countries, it was often a religious holiday that celebrated motherhood and even the role mother's played in bringing up children. Many countries today celebrate Mother's Day, where the holiday has a variety of dates around the world, reflecting ancient traditional days but also more recent US influence on the concept of the holiday.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Wikis]][[Category:Holiday History]][[Category:United States History]][[Category:Ancient History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_climate_change_influence_the_rise_of_ancient_Egypt&diff=13751How did climate change influence the rise of ancient Egypt2018-11-22T21:17:37Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>[[File:F2.large.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Figure 1. Climate data showing wetter conditions in Egypt and surrounding regions before 5000 BC.]]__NOTOC__<br />
Climate change today is seen as something that can bring down our societies and a potential threat to cities and civilization. While that has some truth to it, the fact is climate change is also likely a trigger for how our modern societies arose. In different parts of the world, major complex societies may have been influenced by climatic and various social factors interacting in a complex web of influences. This could have been the case for ancient Egypt as well.<br />
<br />
====Climate in Egypt Before the Pharaohs====<br />
During the early phases of agricultural development in the ancient Near East, Egypt was a society of small-scale hunter gatherers living not only in the Nile valley but also what are today the desert regions of North Africa and the deserts to the east and west of the Nile. At around 8000 BC, the climate had shifted from very dry conditions to much wetter conditions due to the global retreat of the great ice sheets and glaciers (Figure 1). The Sahara Desert, among the driest regions in the world today, was a savannah like environment more similar to the Serengeti than the harsh desert of today. People were able to roam in this region, living on hunting of even big game animals, possibly including elephants and wildebeests. Lakes and open woodlands were also found. The Nile certainly exists but was not only a more lush region but it was also swampy as it was also influenced by summer monsoon rains that are more northerly than they are today. This also made the Mediterranean have more water flow into it, influencing rainfall conditions in Asia. In general, the relatively wet period was a conducive for hunting and gathering in north Africa and Egypt. Farming would have existed mostly in the Middle East, but it would not have been a major economic focus in Egypt between 8000-5000 BC. Domestic animals do appear more at around 6000 BC, including cattle, suggesting herders were also beginning to develop. Herders were likely not only using the Nile but also going out to what are desert regions to graze their animals. The relatively wet conditions made the desert regions also more attractive for herds. If the Nile was more humid, it could have also been full of malaria and more disease prone, possibly pushing away some early settlers.<ref>For more on the wet Early Holocene period that influenced northern Africa and Egypt, see: Kuper, R. (2006). Climate-Controlled Holocene Occupation in the Sahara: Motor of Africa’s Evolution. <i>Science</i>, 313(5788), 803–807. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1130989 </ref><br />
<br />
<br />
====Climate and the Nile====<br />
[[File:Traps-01.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px||Figure 2. Desert sites, such as this one, began to be abandoned in greater numbers after 5000 BC.]]<br />
By around 5000 BC, the summer monsoons began to stop or at least shift (possibly going more to the south) and northern Africa, and Egypt by extension, began to become more dry. People began to migrate more towards the Nile valley as it became a concentrated area for settlement. Agriculture began to play a more significant role, but hunting and fishing were still important (Figure 2). Parts of the Nile dried up, which meant that some major branches no longer flowed into the Nile. The Nile was becoming more a single, large stream river similar to today with relatively few branches (e.g., the White and Blue Nile). People did also begin to occupy major oases around Egypt, such as the Dakhala and Farfara, but soon some of the oases even began to dryup. In many ways, this was the onset of the Neolithic in Egypt, as grain likely domesticated in the Near East made its way into the Nile valley. People were still relatively mobile and herding may have made a substantial contribution to diets, similar to the Sahel in Africa today. Between 4400-4000 BC, conditions became more dry and this may have led to increased prominence of grain agriculture, as it became harder to keep larger herds due to the dryness. The Nile now becomes the key area for social development as people are concentrated there. There was an acceleration of migration into the Nile valley during about 4000 BC. From about 4400 BC, a Mediterranean climate is evident, which was characterised by winter rains and almost no summer rains. Effectively, what was more of an African climate had now shifted to something seen today in the Mediterranean region.<ref>For more on the role of aridification, particularly after 5000 BC, on Egyptian civilization, see: Brooks, N., 2006. Cultural Responses to Aridity in the Middle Holocene and Increased Social Complexity. <i>Quaternary International</i>, 151, 29–49</ref><br />
<br />
====Climate in Egyptian Civilization====<br />
In the 4th millennium BC, the Nile, became less predictable. From around 3700 BC, the Nile may have periodically flooded more than expected while in other years floods were too low. Although the patterns of the annual Nile flood, which was critical to agriculture, had set in, the timing and fluctuations were not stable. This could have been due to fluctuating monsoon rains in central Africa that was influencing Nile flooding. It was during this time we begin to see settlements becoming larger but also more distant from the flood areas of the Nile. The settlements around Naqada become among the most important areas for Egypt in this time and develop early proto-kings that influence much of Egypt. Hierakonpolis also arose as a possible rival to Naqada. The limitation of resources that were once found in the deserts along with less predictable flooding has led some to speculate that these could have been the triggers to the social stratification and inequality that led to the rise of pharaohs or at least proto-kings that would have held some regional power as they competed with potentially other actors. While the Nile became more dry, this could have made the river less marshy and thus more useful for both agriculture and settlement. In other words, in earlier periods there may have been too much water, while during the the 4th millennium BC it became now suitable for major towns and cities to begin to form. There were likely some brief wet episodes during this time but in general the climate became more dry and resources and people began to be concentrated along the Nile, leading to the great social stratification and hierarchy that became associated with Egyptian civilization.<ref>For more on Nile flooding and unpredictable climate conditions, see: Hassan, F.A., 2008. Africa, North | Egypt, Pre-Pharaonic. <i>Encyclopedia of Archaeology</i>, p. 45-50. </ref><br />
<br />
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After 3500 BC, the last remaining margins outside of the Nile were mostly abandoned, with the exception of a few oases. Nile records soon began to be recorded by the now rapidly arising Egyptian societies along the Nile that happened between 3500-3000 BC. From around 3000 BC, stability of the Nile became more evident. The floods were more predictable and providing the fertility and water needed for crops to be grown in the Nile valley. The first unifying pharaohs arose by around 3200-3100 BC. The combination of predictable flooding and concentrations of populations in the Nile valley made it easier for pharaohs to rule a larger population, but this was also made possible by the increasing aridity that had occurred over the previous millennia. Stability through the benefaction of the gods and pharaoh became a key theme in Egyptian civilization, which was influenced by the largely predictable climate of Egypt as climate stabilized for a period.<ref>For more on increased social complexity triggered by climatic change, see: Newton, C., Midant-Reynes, B., 2007. Environmental Change and Settlement Shifts in Upper Egypt<br />
during the Predynastic: Charcoal Analysis at Adaïm. <i> A Holocene Research Paper</i>, 17 (8), 1109-1118</ref><br />
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However, stability was not always that long lasting. By around 2400 BC, rainfall in the equatorial regions of Africa, which affected the annual flooding of the Nile that was needed for agriculture, began to diminish. Around 2200 BC, conditions became even more arid and this may have contributed to the crisis of the late 3rd millennium in ancient Egypt with the fall of Old Kingdom Egypt. Once again, climate may have played some role in shaping Egyptian civilization, this time creating famine or some loss of stability for the state authorities that challenged their ability to control the population. Rebellions against the state developed and Egypt broke into multiple kingdoms. It would reemerge as a unified state after 2000 BC, but climate continued to influence Egyptian civilization in the centuries to come. Egypt, at times, would emerge as the breadbasket for major empires, such as the Roman Empire, but at other times would experience famine and breakdown of central authority. So long as the monsoon rains were stable, Egypt thrived, but once there was disruption to the summer monsoons then it often began to crumble as a central, unified state.<ref>For more on changing climate conditions affecting Egyptian civilization, see: Yletyinen, J. (2009). <i>Holocene climate variability and cultural changes at River Nile and its Saharan surroundings</i>. Institutionen för naturgeografi och kvartärgeologi. Stockholm. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:400169/FULLTEXT01.pdf </ref><br />
<br />
====Summary====<br />
If we were to go to Egypt in 8000 BC, we would see a very different place that is much wetter than today's desert environment. In fact, the Nile may have not been the ideal place to live, as it was swampy and could have been malaria infested. However, as drier conditions began to develop after 5000 BC, we see populations concentrating more in the Nile valley. This helped to trigger social complexity and accumulation of goods into fewer hands, helping to lead to the rise of pharaohs and what became Pharaonic Egypt. While climate change may have helped trigger the rise of the ancient Egyptian state, it also threatened it such as at around 2000 BC when diminished monsoons may have led to low Nile flooding and widespread famine.<br />
<br />
====References====<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
{{Contributors}}<br />
[[Category:Environmental History]][[Category:Ancient Egyptian History]][[Category:Wikis]][[Category:History of Science]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_Tables_Evolve_as_Furniture&diff=13752How Did Tables Evolve as Furniture2018-11-22T21:17:37Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>Tables are important items of furniture for most modern homes and offices. However, outside of their basic utilitarian function, they have evolved into important items for social display and meaning. Concepts of power, status, and social interaction have revolved around the physical presence and concept of the table, where the design and purpose of the table has extended to many different meanings.<br />
<br />
==Early History==<br />
In earliest written societies, Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BCE, tables were utilized mostly to keep things from the floor or lift items off the floor. Stands, on the other hand, held food and drinks for people. Tables were created from stone, wood, or sometimes ceramic, although usually these were smaller tables such as end tables. Tables were used for activities such as making crafts. Tables were not seen as a primary item for furniture in the home or palaces. However, tables were often important for providing offerings in sacrifices, where altars essentially resembled a type of table that provided or served a sacrifice to the gods (Figure 1). By the 2nd and 1st millennium BCE, tables began to appear more on palace reliefs. By then, the table began to replace stands as something that could hold items while one was seated. Tables also were now made of metal as well as more perishable materials.<ref>For more on early Egyptian and Mesopotamian tables, see: Smardzewski, J. (2015). <i>Furniture design.</i> Cham: Springer International Publishing : Imprint : Springer, pg. 5.</ref><br />
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In the 1st millennium BCE, the Greeks and later Romans also began to utilize tables as more prominent pieces of furniture for the home. Many scenes indicate dining and feasting occurring around tables rather than indicating that tables were a more prominent aspect of daily furniture. In effect, tables were linked with more larger social gatherings as they became more prominent. The guéridon (Figure 2), a small rounded table we still use, became popular as a typical piece of furniture for homes. This took on decorative and perhaps even religious aspects, as they showed imagery of mythical beasts. Romans also made more elaborate and decorated tables that were larger, where they now became more associated with wealth display in feasts and as prominent furniture in rich estates. Tables began to be associated with banqueting and elaborate feasts that were held to show wealth of households. Tables were seen as something that would accompany lounging or laying on couches. Chairs were not typically shown with tables.<ref>For more on Greek and Roman tables, see: Croom, A. (2007). <i>Roman furniture.</i> Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus.</ref><br />
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[[File:Egyptian - Offering Table of King Amasis (570-526 BC) - Walters 22122.jpg|thumbnail|Figure 1. Offering table from Egypt.]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Marble table from Pompeii.JPG|thumbnail|Figure 2. A guéridon from Pompeii.]]<br />
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==Later Development==<br />
In the early Medieval period, tables once again lost some of their prominence. Household furniture often did not emphasize large tables and multiple types of furniture, such as chests, would be substituted for tables as they were required. However, wealthy classes or individuals began creating long tables that they could put all or many guests on. Tables began to represent a type of social bonding that guests would come together around physically but also socially. Benches and chairs now began to be associated with long tables. Thus, long tables in prominent halls became symbolic as wealth and social status, where one can dine many guests at once as a way of showing social status and power. Desks were differentiated by this time from tables, where monks and others who worked with written documents required tables have drawers or different design to make writing and reading easier, such as a slightly angled table.<ref>For more on Medieval furniture in Europe, see: Diehl, D., & Donnelly, M. (1999). <i>Medieval furniture: plans and instructions for historical reproductions </i> (1st ed). Mechanicsburg, Pa: Stackpole Books.</ref><br />
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One aspect of tables was they became ways in which social rank was displayed. Those from prominent families or status ate at the head of the table, sometimes on a raised dais, while others were further away from the raised part or front of the table. If anything, it was only later in the Medieval period that dinning tables began to reduce in size again. This was seen, in part, due to the Black Death and declining larger gatherings held. Uprisings and political instability, in part due to the schism between Catholics and Protestants in the 16th century, led to smaller dinning gatherings in general, as it was seen less beneficial to have too many large banquets as divisions emerged in society. This led to a reshaping of dinning into more intimate type gatherings and smaller tables becoming more fashionable. Round dinning tables also began to be seen as giving a more intimate gathering than traditional long dinning tables.<ref>For more on dinning around tables and rank in society, see: Weiss Adamson, M. (2010). <i>Food in medieval times.</i> Westport, Conn. [u.a.: Greenwood Press.</ref><br />
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In the Renaissance period, there was renewed interest in all things Classical. Tables were among the many types of items and furniture where they were created to resemble Roman or Greek style ornate tables. Highly elaborate designs found in wealthy households from the Roman period began to be copied and reproduced. There were innovations though by the 17th century. As the urban elite and rich began to imitate Roman or Greek designs, the trestle table was a development of this period in the countryside. It was seen as a simple but elegant design for dinning.<ref>For more on the trestle, see: Sparkes, I. G. (1980). <i>An illustrated history of English domestic furniture, 1100-1837: the age of the craftsman.</i> Bourne End [Eng.]: Spurbooks.</ref><br />
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In the 18th century, the idea of men drinking around tables after dinner led to more "masculine" style tables in Europe. As tables began to be associated with drinking and male social comradery, the social setting was reflected in the design of the period where decorative elements and thick tables resembled more masculine forms. Coffee and tea culture also began to become important in much of Europe and Britain. As these drinks often were consumed by themselves or with a small portion of snack or sweet, tables required tended to be small. However, it was uncomfortable to be seated low, so this gave the rise of high standing but narrow tables used in cafes throughout Europe. In effect, it was a new form of table used for the increasing role of coffee and tea houses as social gathering places. However, for the home, coffee tables did evolve to have shorter legs, as more people in the family were expected to gather around it, seating was lower such as on couches, and making the higher design less suitable for larger numbers of people.<ref>For more on socializing and tables, see: Koda, H., Bolton, A. (2006). <i>Dangerous liaisons: fashion and furniture in the eighteenth century</i>; [Exhibition “Dangerous Liaisons: Fashion and Furniture in the 18th Century” held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from April 29 to September 6, 2004]. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press [u.a.].</ref><br />
<br />
==Variations of Designs==<br />
<br />
More activities within the home and at work led to new types of tables being designed. Console tables, pier tables, side tables and hall tables were all variations of tables that were put along the walls of homes or larger buildings for activities ranging from eating, socializing, working, and drinking. Darker tables became more fashionable from the 19th century, including the use of heavy woods such as rosewood and mahogany. Coffee tables, with shorter legs, became features of the home by the 19th century. It was also during the renaissance and later centuries that tables were used for different types of games, including chess billiards.<ref>For more on activities and table design, see: Cohen, M. F. (2005). <i>Professional domesticity in the Victorian novel: women, work, and home.</i> Cambridge, U.K. ; New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref> <br />
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In the mid to late 19th century, tables began to be simpler in design and less elaborate in general, as mass production increased, leading to new concepts of faster construction of tables where parts were pre-made and put together after being shipped to shops or furniture sellers. By 1890, Art Nouveau style tables began to replace the more classical appearance of tables, which helped to diminish their central importance in homes. Table design was now seen to be inspired by influence outside of the Classics or the past. In the early 20th century, there was more of a desire to remove the cluttered look of Victorian style homes in the UK and elsewhere, leading to simpler designs for tables and smaller tables.<ref>For more on design and decor that became popular in the late 19th and 20th centuries, see: Binstead, H. E. (2007). <i>The furniture styles: Design from Elizabeth I to Art Nouveau.</i> JM Classic Editions.</ref> <br />
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In the 20th century, table designs began to apply sometimes more color or variation in design from traditional shapes. This reflected society's increase access to leisure time where the home became a place to entertain and enjoy ones time. Tables, became less formal and, often, more associated with informal gatherings and activities as well as retaining the traditional dining role they had.<ref>For more on modern furniture design, see: Quinn, B. (2004). <i>Mid-century modern: interiors, furniture, design details.</i> London: Conran Octopus.<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
==Summary==<br />
Tables have had a long history of social significance not only for daily activities but also as social gathering places. Rank in society and social contact were important aspects of expression conducted around or on tables. Thus, tables took important symbolic meaning for societies, as their practical application became more prominent. Designs have remained generally conservative over the centuries, but evolution in design and they way we use tables reflects how we have changed our use of social space and concepts of what the home means to us have led to changes in furniture such as tables.<br />
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==References==</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_are_the_%22Six_Flags%22_that_have_Flown_over_Texas&diff=13749What are the "Six Flags" that have Flown over Texas2018-11-22T21:17:35Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>[[File:US_flag_96_stars.png|left|275px|thumbnail|United States Flag]]<br />
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Every year roughly 25 million people queue up at Six Flags amusement parks across North America to test their nerve against death-defying roller coasters and scream at the splashdown in plunging water flumes. With all the excitement afoot few of the thrill-seekers bother themselves with the oddly vexillological origin of the fun centers. But the Six Flags name is grounded in very real history, which when dissected, encapsulates about 400 years of early American settlement.<br />
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Angus Gilchrist Wynne, Jr. grew up in a prominent East Texas family. His father was the first President of the State Bar of Texas and his brother was one of the founders of the Dallas Cowboys. <ref>"A Forgotten Founder of the Dallas Cowboys," Know Your Dallas Cowboys, website, posted January 28, 2009</ref> Wynne worked the Texas oil fields but after a stint in the United States Navy during World War II he drifted into real estate development. On a trip to see the new Disneyland in California in 1957 Wynne became convinced that his Lone Star State needed a "Disneyland-like Great Southwest Land." <ref>Cashion, Ty, The New Frontier, Historical Publishing Network, 2006, page 123</ref><br />
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Fifteen thousand Texans were waiting at the gate for Angus Wynne to cut the ribbon on his new amusement park in August of 1961. <ref>Bosse, Paula, "Angus Wynne, Jr.'s Texas Disneyland' - 1961," Flashback: Dallas, website, posted 2014</ref> Wynne called his pleasure palace "Six Flags Over Texas," taking the name from the six sovereign nations that had presided over the government of Texas. The park was divided into separate themed sections, a la Disneyland, with each representing a period of the state's history which came alive with miniature towns, shows and attractions.<br />
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Texans received plenty of entertainment at Six Flags to help the overt dose of history go down. By the time Six Flags Entertainment Corporation celebrated its golden anniversary in 2011 the company had spread far beyond its Texas roots and was the largest amusement park operator in the world; history was no longer part of its profit equation. The Six Flags & Texas Railroad is the lone attraction from 1961 still whisking passengers around the amusement park. So what were the six flags that must seem completely obtuse to those buying tickets in Montreal and Mexico City and Jackson, New Jersey?<br />
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==Spain==<br />
[[File:640px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png|thumbnail|left|250px|Cross of Burgundy used as the flag by the Spanish Monarchy between 1506-1701]]<br />
Of course, when the native American populations are not ignored, many more than six nations have occupied the lands that are modern day Texas. But the first European nation to stake a claim in Texas was Spain, beginning with a decree by Charles I in 1519. <ref>Robinson III, Charles M, ''The Spanish Invasion of Mexico 1519-1521'', Osprey Publishing, 2004, Introduction</ref> With this arbitrary edict, Hernán Cortés, who had washed out of law school and signed on as a soldier-adventurer to Santo Domingo in 1504, set his sights on the Aztec nation in Mexico which was rumored to control vast reserves of wealth. Cortés received permission to lead an expedition towards Mexico City but when it was rightly assumed he was no more than a fortune hunter the orders were withdrawn. Cortés sailed with 600 men on eleven ships anyway and completed the conquest of the Aztecs in 1523. The land was now under the control of New Spain.<br />
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While in Mexico City the Spanish did little to colonize the lands to the north for nearly 200 years. From time to time they would hear tell of a "great kingdom of Texas." The name was apparently in wide use by Indians of East Texas and roughly translated to "friends" or "allies." Damián Massanet would finally found the first Spanish mission among the Tejas Indians in 1689. <ref>Fry, Phillip L.,"Texas, Origin of the Name,” Handbook of Texas Online published by the Texas State Historical Association, June 15, 2010</ref><br />
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==France==<br />
[[File:Pavillon_royal_de_France.png|thumbnail|left|250px|Flag of French Royal Family]]<br />
René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, explored around the Great Lakes in the 1600s, pushing westward and establishing forts for New France. In actuality he never stopped looking for a quick passage to China. LaSalle claimed Louisiana for the French in 1682 and launched an expedition on July 24, 1684 to establish a French colony on the Gulf of New Mexico. His men constructed Fort Saint Louis on what is today Victoria County in Texas and raised the Bourbon royal standard of the Kingdom of France. LaSalle would also die on future Texas soil in 1687 when he was murdered during a mutiny. The colony collapsed shortly thereafter. <ref>Weddle, Robert S., “La Salle's Texas Settlement,” Handbook of Texas Online published by the Texas State Historical Association, October 30, 2011</ref><br />
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In 1800, Napoleon Bonaparte won portions of northern Texas as part of his beat-down of Spain in the Napoleonic Wars. But there was hardly time to ship famous French Tricolours to the region before Napoleon sold the Louisiana Territory to Thomas Jefferson for 68,000,000 francs, or about five cents per acre. <ref>“The Louisiana Purchase," ''Jefferson National Expansion Memorial Museum Gazette'', National Park Service, December 1991</ref><br />
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==Mexico==<br />
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Emperor Napoleon's successes in Europe helped loosen Spain's grip in the New World. Spanish leaders squelched early revolutionary tendencies in the early 1800s but gradually the independence movement, led by secular rabble-rousing priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, the "Father of Mexican Independence," gathered influence. After General Agustín de Iturbide and his Army of the Three Guarantees took control of Mexico City on September 27, 1821 the independence of Mexico, including most of the land of today’s Texas, was formally recognized. <ref>“Galicia, Angie, "Don Miguel Hidalgo: Father of Our Independence," ''Inside Mexico'', September 30, 2013</ref><br />
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==Republic of Texas==<br />
[[File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Texas_(1835-1839).svg.png|thumbnail|250px|Flag for the Republic of Texas (1835-39)]]<br />
Americans, always on the lookout for a good fight, fought on the side of Mexico against Spain. After winning of independence for Mexico many of those Americans began settling in Mexican land, most notably Stephen F. Austin who crossed the Brazos River and set up a colony that came to be known as Mexican Texas. So many farmers were staking out land that alarms went up in Mexico City and President Anastasio Bustamante banned all immigration of United States citizens to Texas in 1830. <ref>Long, Christopher, “Old Three Hundred,” Handbook of Texas Online published by the Texas State Historical Association, June 15, 2010</ref> Mexico was also deeply concerned with the expansion of slavery by these Americans into Mexico. <br />
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The colonists fought back - first with words and then with rifle shots when Texas insurgents stormed the walls of Fort Velasco on the Gulf of Mexico on June 25, 1832. <ref>“Velasco, Battle of” Handbook of Texas Online published by the Texas State Historical Association, June 15, 2010</ref> By 1835 there was open warfare and after delegates meeting along the Brazos River in an unincorporated area called "Washington" on March 2, 1836 issued the Texas Declaration of Independence a new nation was launched. <ref>“Texas Declaration of Independence," The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, website, uploaded 2013</ref> Just over a year later General Sam Houston led the Texian Army in a rout of President Santa Anna and his men in the Battle of San Jacinto, avenging the defeat at the Alamo mission and forcing a peace treaty that recognized the Republic of Texas as an independent country.<br />
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==United States of America==<br />
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At least that is what the Texans thought. The Mexican interpretation was that Santa Anna merely agreed to lobby for the independence of Texas back in Mexico City. Meanwhile the citizens of the new Republic of Texas were eager to fold up their "Lone Star Flag" and adopt the stars and stripes of the United States. Negotiations began almost immediately and in 1845 Texas joined the Union as the 28th state. The dispute of legitimacy became moot when Mexico and the U.S. became embroiled in a boundary in 1846. When the Mexican-American War ended in 1848 Mexico had lost about half of its territory, including the Republic of Texas, which may or may not have been theirs to lose to begin with.<br />
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==Confederate States of America==<br />
[[File:Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_of_America_(1861-1863).svg.png|left|thumbnail|250px|Confederate States of America flag (1861-63)]]<br />
Flag number six flew over Texas during the American Civil War, as southern states called the Civil War from its beginning. Texas left the Union on February 1, 1861 but governor Sam Houston refused to pledge an oath of allegiance to the breakaway country. The hero of Texas independence was summarily ousted from office and Texas began flying the colors of the Confederate States of America on March 2, 1861. <ref>"Texas in the Civil War: Stories of Sacrifice, Valor and Hope," pamphlet, Texas Historical Commission, 2013</ref><br />
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It has now been more than 150 years since Texas switched official flags for the last time after the Civil War but the remnants of its tumultuous past are very much in evidence. The slogan percolates across America’s second-largest state and coats of arms from the six nations are proudly displayed under the 308-foot high dome of the Texas State Capitol in Austin. Of course, that past can also be reflected on while one is flipping head over heels six times in the wing-seat Total Mayhem roller coaster at a Six Flags adventure park.<br />
<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"><br />
==Related DailyHistory.org Articles==<br />
*[[The Best Historians and Books According to James McPherson]]<br />
*[[What Was the Significance of the Southwest in the Outcome of the Civil War]]<br />
*[[The Mysterious Illness of Jim Bowie: How Did He Contribute to His Own Decline?]]<br />
*[[Why Was Vicksburg “The Gibraltar of the Confederacy?”]]<br />
*[[Were Members of the Underground Railroad Criminals?]]<br />
</div><br />
{{Mediawiki:Civil War}}<br />
==References==<br />
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[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:United States History]] [[Category:19th Century History]][[Category:Civil War]][[Category:US Colonial History]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_Were_the_Earliest_Christian_Communities_like&diff=13748What Were the Earliest Christian Communities like2018-11-22T21:17:34Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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[[File:Pentecost.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|The disciples receiving the Holy Spirit]]Once Jesus allegedly ascended into heaven (Acts 1) his apostles were tasked with the mission of building the church and spreading the Gospel (Matthew 28:19). By looking at Acts of the Apostles and several other extra-biblical texts scholars have pieced together a picture of how the apostles went about this mission--how it was that they began the spread of the Christian movement and organized the earliest Christian communities. In what follows I will give a brief account of what the early church looked like: how it became distinct from Judaism, how Christian came together and worshiped, how they organized the governing or hierarchical structure of Christian communities.<br />
<br />
===The emergence of a new religion===<br />
Many scholars in Christian history debate about the exact time when Christianity became distinct from Judaism. As a Jew himself, Jesus’ teaching and preaching could be understood as a reform movement within the Jewish tradition. Jesus’ twelve apostles whom he instructed to begin the Church, “spreading the news to all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit,” were also Jews (Mt 28:19). And thus, the first and biggest questions facing the followers of Christ was what their relationship to the Mosaic Law was. What did it mean to be a “follower of the way” or a member of the New Covenant in Christ? Did gentiles need to become Jews before being admitted into this new community? These questions are debated by the early Christians in what the Book of Acts describes as the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15). <br />
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The discussion was largely centered upon the issue of circumcision (the mark of the covenant God established with Abraham). Some within the early Christian community were preaching that, “Unless you are circumcised according to the custom of Moses, you cannot be saved” (Acts 15:1). Others, such as the Apostle Paul, were preaching that circumcision was not necessary for one to be saved and thus it was wrong to suggest gentiles must be circumcised to enter the Christian community.<ref>In Paul’s epistle to the Romans this specific topic is discussed at length and it the major theme of the entire letter.</ref> Peter and James, ultimately concluded that salvation comes by grace; it is not predicated upon whether or not someone is circumcised. <br />
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The importance of this conclusion cannot be understated: it was a defining moment that distinguishes Christians from Jews. Circumcision, and also adherence to the Levitical law, was determined to not be binding on Christians.<ref>The book of Leviticus in the Tanak (what Christians refer to as the ‘Old Testament’) thoroughly outlines the law Jews were instructed to live by according to God. This law details everything from circumcision to how one must prepare food and interact with gentiles.</ref> Moreover, being admitted and recognized as belong to God’s people was not done through circumcision and restricted to those of the Jewish community, but was a universal invitation to all people, thus why early christians called themselves catholic, meaning “universal.” This was now understood by Christians to occur through the washing of regeneration, or baptism. <br />
<br />
===How did they worship?===<br />
Firstly, before we discuss how Christians worshiped, it might be helpful to discuss where they worshiped. Because Christians were mostly lower rank and heavily persecuted up until the reign of Constantine, they typically worshiped in what is described as a domus ecclesiae, latin for “house church.” These were small rooms located in the basements of houses, owned by a member of the congregation who served as a patron.<ref>White, L. Michael, Building God's House in the Roman World: Architectural Adaptation among Pagans, Jews, and Christians. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), pg. 106-109.</ref> <br />
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The only recognizable piece a furniture in the place of worship was a table (possibly an altar). However, scholars disagree about whether this functioned as the location of an agape meal (a communal feast to heighten the community’s sense of belonging are mutual affection) or where Christians celebrated the Eucharist, ευχαριστία in Greek, which means “thanksgiving.” Moreover, it is also possible that the Eucharist was celebrated as part of the agape meal as well. Regardless, this table or altar was the focal point of the room. It wouldn’t be until the fourth century when basilicas are erected and specifically denoted as Christian worship spaces. <br />
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There are a number of sources one could use to speculate how the early Christians conducted their worship services, but the two earliest and most reliable are the Didache (c. 90 C.E), and St. Justin Martyr's First Apology. The Didache is greek for “teaching” and is also known as the “Teaching of the Twelve Apostles.” In chapters 8-10 we get a glimpse of how Christians prayed and perhaps what were included in their worship services. Chapter 8 specifies that Christians should pray using the instructions Jesus gave during the sermon on the mount: the “Our Father” (Matthew 6:9-13). <br />
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Chapters 9 and 10 deal specifically with the Eucharist, and include instructions for a prayer of consecration for both the bread and wine. It then instructs to not let anyone who has not been baptized take part in the ritual, saying, “But let no one eat or drink of your Thanksgiving (Eucharist), but they who have been baptized into the name of the Lord.” <ref><i>Didache,</i>translated by M.B. Riddle. From Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886.) Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. <http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0714.htm></ref>. It also indicates that the consecrated bread and wine should be brought to the members of the community who are absent. <br />
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St. Justin Martyr’s First Apology (c.155 C.E.) was written as an apologia, meaning “defense,” of the Christian faith to the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. In Chapter 67 it gives a play by play of what a typical Christian gathering would entail.<ref>Justin Martyr,<i>First Apology</i>, translated by Marcus Dods and George Reith. From <i>Ante-Nicene Fathers</i>, Vol. 1. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1885.) Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. <http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm></ref> He explains that on the “day of the Sun,” or Sunday, all the Christians in the area congregate together in one place. First they read the memoirs of the Apostles and then the writings of the prophets. Subsequently, the presbyter, or leader, exhorts the congregation and encourages them to imitate the “good things” they have heard. After this, the bread and wine are brought forth and prayed over and then distributed to the congregation. He specifically mentions that the members receive the bread saying, “Amen,” which means, “I believe” or “I assent.” Lastly, prayers or petitions are offered for the congregation and the wider community and the consecrated bread and wine and brought to those in the community who were unable to attend the service. So, as the evidence from the Didache and the First Apology suggests, the celebration of the Eucharist seems to be a particularly important aspect of Christian worship services in antiquity. <br />
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===Who was in charge?===<br />
There is substantial debate on what the earliest hierarchical structure of the Church looked like. Roman Catholics assert that Peter was designated a special leadership role (the Petrine function) among the Apostles and is believed to be the first pope. Catholics of the Roman rite point to Matthew 16 to demonstrate this: “And I tell you, you are Peter,and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven” (Matthew 16:18-19). In addition, they assert the bishopric of Rome has an unbroken line of succession from Peter until the present day. Even if Peter did have the main leadership role in the early church, it is clear that both James and John were highly regarded authorities as well. In Paul’s letter to the Galatians he refers to these three (Peter, James, and John) as the “pillars” and expresses a need to present them with his Gospel to ensure it’s veracity and sincerity (Galatians 2:1-10). <br />
<br />
===Women in the Church===<br />
One topic generating an ever-growing discussion is the role of women in the early Christian communities. Were they given leadership roles? It is hard to deny that women were, in fact, entrusted with some level of authority in early Christian communities. Jesus himself has several close disciples that were women and seemed to challenge their traditional subservient role. As Irvin and Sunquist note, “Throughout his teaching and ministry he invited women and men alike to begin to live in a new family pattern that was non-patriarchal, doing so accord to the values of the coming reign of God.”<ref>Irvin & Sunquist, History of the World Christian Movement. (New York: Orbis, 2008), pg. 23.</ref> There are also several women that Paul explicitly grants authority to within his epistles, Prisca and Pheobe, and distinguishes them as leaders of various communities.<ref>For more on women in the early Church see: Ehrman, Bart D. Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).</ref><br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
All of this being said, it is important to note that the early Christian church was far from monolithic. During the first few centuries of Christianity, the New Testament canon had not yet been compiled and the hierarchical structure of the Church was still in flux. What would eventually become the systematization of the medieval Church was part of an evolutionary process that has its beginnings here in antiquity. <br />
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==References==<br />
<references/><br />
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[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:Religious History]][[Category:Greek History]][[Category:Christian History]][[Category:Roman History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_Saint_Patrick%27s_Day_Develop&diff=13746How Did Saint Patrick's Day Develop2018-11-22T21:17:33Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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[[File:Saint Patrick Catholic Church (Junction City, Ohio) - stained glass, Saint Patrick.jpg|thumbnail|left|Figure 1. Depiction of Saint Patrick.]]<br />
Saint Patrick's day is celebrate as an important Catholic feast day in Ireland. It also has important religious significance in other places that recognize the importance of Saint Patrick in bringing Christianity to Ireland. While the story of Saint Patrick does relate to the bringing of Christianity to Ireland, many of the stories and celebrations have other influences and reasons that have shaped the celebratory day.<br />
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==Early Development==<br />
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Saint Patrick's day only became a recognized feast day in the early 17th century. However, it's development and traditions took various forms of influence. Outside of knowledge of Saint Patrick as being perhaps the most important person in bringing Christianity to Ireland, little else is known. He may have been a British-Roman missionary who migrated from Britain in the 5th century CE, perhaps in the 430s when Rome's grip on Britain had faded. The work, <i> Declaration </i>, dated to this period, may have been written by him and provides the most detail on his life. It is not even clear if, however, Patrick was his name, as other possibilities have been suggested such as Magnus. There is also the tradition of Palladius being the first bishop of Ireland, recorded to be around 431. He may have been a figure conflated with Patrick in later traditions, where Palladius and Patrick were combined into one figure (Figure 1).<ref>For more on the early traditions and stories of Saint Patrick, see: Dumville, D. N., & Abrams, L. (1993). <i>Saint Patrick, A. D. 493 - 1993</i>. Woodbridge: Boydell.</ref><br />
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Tradition holds he was taken captive as a teenager by Irish pirates from his native Britain. He eventually escaped but after some time he saw a vision and came back to Ireland to be a missionary. When he came back, he became active in baptizing and spreading Christianity. Interestingly, an early 7th century letter written by Columbanus, an Irish missionary, states that Christianity came to Ireland via Palladius. Works by Tírechán, writing later in the 7th century, then begin to attribute Christianity brought to Ireland via Patrick. The writer refers to <i>Book of Ultán</i>, which could be a missing or lost source regarding Patrick, as this work no longer survives. Many of the conversion stories mimic other conversion stories found in the late Roman Empire, suggesting that many of the stories were borrowed and attributed to Patrick or even that the stories were combined in relation to Patrick. It may have not been until the 7th century, long after Patrick, that churches and monasteries began to spread across Ireland.<ref>For more on the early Medieval developments and writings, see: Freeman, P. (2006). <i>St. Patrick of Ireland: a biography</i> (1. Simon & Schuster paperback ed). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. </ref> <br />
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The main tradition that continues to have connection to Saint Patrick is the use of the shamrock to teach about the Holy Trinity. However, that tradition was only written down in the 1700s, far later than any of the early Medieval writings about Saint Patrick. Nevertheless, the story could be much older and may reflect at least Medieval beliefs. Other stories, such as snakes being banished from Ireland by Patrick, reflect the fact that there have not been snakes in Ireland since the last ice age. The selection of March 17th as Saint Patrick's day relates to the purported date of Patrick's death, but there is no certainty of that from sources.<ref>For more on Saint Patrick's Day traditions, see: Cronin, M., & Adair, D. (2002).<i> The wearing of the green: a history of St. Patrick’s Day</i>. London ; New York: Routledge, pg. 22.</ref><br />
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==Later Development==<br />
[[File:Stpatricksdayparadeunionsquare.png|thumbnail|left|Figure 2. Saint Patrick's day celebrations in 1874 in New York.]]<br />
In the 9th and 10th centuries, Saint Patrick's day was being celebrated widely throughout Ireland. By the Medieval period, Patrick became the undisputed Patron Saint of Ireland. By the 17th century, green had increasingly been associated with Ireland. As the color became associated with the country and people, naturally Saint Patrick, the patron saint, began to also be associated with this color, leading to this color being the primary color worn on the feast day. In the 17th century, Luke Wadding, an important Franciscan friar from Ireland, placed Saint Patrick as part of the official important feast days in the Catholic calendar. The Vatican recognized Saint Patrick's day in 1631 as a feast day.<ref>For more on the development of Saint Patrick as the Patron Saint of Ireland, see: Duffy, S., MacShamhráin, A., & Moynes, J. (Eds.). (2005). <i>Medieval Ireland: an encyclopedia</i>. New York: Routledge, pg. 66.</ref><br />
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Even after the conversion to Protestantism and migration of English to Ireland in the 1600s, the Anglican calendar has retained Saint Patrick as part of their celebrations. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Saint Patrick's day began to take a nationalistic characteristic against Protestant and British forces in Ireland. In 1903, Saint Patrick's day in Ireland held its first parade in Waterford, which was the home of the bishop who had created Saint Patrick's day as an official feast day. In 1916, large-scale Saint Patrick's day marches and parades were held in Ireland, where the anti-British occupation Irish Volunteers sponsored these marches and parades. Some accounts suggest many or even most of the participants may have been armed, signifying the troubled period during British occupation throughout Ireland. With the partition of Ireland after the creation of the Irish Free State, celebrations in Northern Ireland began to reflect Protestant and Catholic divisions. The Unionists of Northern Ireland, although recognizing Saint Patrick's day as a holiday, did not hold any official celebrations, while the Catholics used the day as a way to protest against the Unionists.<ref>For more on the tradition of the Saint Patrick's parade and celebrations, see: Barth, E. (1977). <i>Shamrocks, harps, and shillelaghs: the story of the St. Patrick’s Day symbols</i>. New York: Clarion Books. </ref><br />
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In the United States, widespread migration in the mid-19th century led to celebrations of Saint Patrick's day. However, it has been claimed that already by 1762 celebrations of Saint Patrick's day, and even the first official parade, had taken place in New York. By the late 18th and early 19th century, Irish migrants had begun to also hold neighborhood celebrations as a way to remember their cultural identity. In the mid-19th century, celebrations and parades were held in places such as New York, Boston, and other places mostly in the eastern United States (Figure 2). US traditions, in may respects, in the 20th century influence the global spread and influence of Saint Patrick's day.<ref>For more on Irish-American traditions, see: Dolan, J. P. (2008). <i>The Irish Americans: a history</i> (1st U.S. ed). New York: Bloomsbury Press.</ref><br />
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==Modern Meaning==<br />
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For many countries and places, Saint Patrick's day is a good excuse for a party. However, in Ireland, traditions in the past meant the celebrations were usually somber. No alcohol was even allowed to be sold on the day in Ireland until that law was repealed in the 1960s. The day involved mass in the morning and then a military parade followed, reflecting the influence of the conflicts between the Unionist and nationalist elements from the early 20th century.<ref>For more on the history of Ireland in the 20th century and Saint Patrick's day, see: Skinner, J., & Bryan, D. (2015).<i> Consuming St. Patrick’s Day</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.</ref><br />
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It was in the 1960s that people began to adopt the US version of celebrations, with the day often being associated with heavy drinking and parades. In the US, the celebratory tradition has since the 18th century been more a reflection of national and social identity. Rather than a somber day, it became more celebratory in Ireland as well in the 1960s. Although Irish Catholics often did face discrimination throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, their celebrations were generally more jovial, as little outward conflict was evident, unlike in Ireland. Some in the US began to use Saint Patrick's day celebrations as a way to reinforce stereotypes, such as drunken behavior among Irish Catholics. However, the positive jovial spirit also became attractive to those who were neither Irish nor even Catholic. In the 1960s, as the Republic of Ireland moved beyond periods of conflict, Saint Patrick's day was seen more a reflection of national identity. US-style marketing, such as all things green, including beer and milkshakes, has also spread since the 1960s. In the US, the day became associated with everyone having an excuse for being Irish for a day at least. Thus, more similar to Halloween, celebrations in the United States of the holiday did not reflect national or cultural identity as much over time, as many people joined celebrations, and it became a more collective celebration. The US-style celebrations spread in many parts of the world, where Saint Patrick's day is not (unofficially at least) often celebrated. Today, Saint Patrick's day parades can be found in such places as Japan, Korea, Turkey, and various parts of Europe. In the UK, Saint Patrick's day remained muted until the 1990s, mostly because of the Troubles and associated bombings that occurred. It was after the Good Friday agreement in 1998 that celebrations in the UK began to be more similar to the United States.<ref>For more on the recent spread of Saint Patrick's day celebrations, see: Inglis, T. (2008). <i>Global Ireland: same difference</i>. New York, N.Y. ; London: Routledge.</ref><br />
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==Summary==<br />
Our knowledge of the original Saint Patrick is still obscure. Traditions attributed to him were often written much later. Celebrations of Saint Patrick's day did have a nationalistic characteristic already in the Medieval period. However, the more nationalistic celebration in Ireland began to be different from the more jovial celebrations in the United States. It was only in the 20th century that the association of parades and heavy drinking in Saint Patrick's day developed, mostly as an American tradition that others adopted, including in Ireland.<br />
<br />
==References==</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_the_Creation_of_Paper_Money_during_the_Song_Dynasty_Impact_China&diff=13745How Did the Creation of Paper Money during the Song Dynasty Impact China2018-11-22T21:17:32Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>[[File: Song_Taizu.jpg|300px|thumbnail|left|Emepror Taizu (reigned AD 960-967), the First Song Emperor]]__NOTOC__<br />
Today, most people take the existence of paper money for granted and few know how its use originated and developed throughout history. In Western countries such as the United States, paper money has a relatively short existence going back to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but in China paper currency first began circulating over 1,000 years ago. The development of paper money was the result of a larger historical process whereby the leaders of the Song Dynasty (AD 960-1279) had to devise new ways to compensate for the demand in metal currency that was the result of their expanding economy. In the end, although the Song Dynasty collapsed for a variety of reasons, their use of paper currency was adopted by later Chinese dynasties, eventually spreading to other Asian peoples. Despite having a profound impact on Asian economic history, paper currency would be one of many inventions/discoveries that never left east Asia and was only discovered in Europe independently several centuries later.<br />
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===The Song Economy===<br />
[[File: SongMap.png|300px|thumbnail|left|Map of the Song Dynasty at Its Height with Some of Its Major Cities and Neighbors Shown]]<br />
The Song Dynasty is generally divided by scholars into the Northern Song (960-1279) and the Southern Song (1127-1227), although the Chinese would have seen no such division at the time. The division was the result of pressures from militarily powerful enemies from the north who pushed the Song Dynasty further south, but for the most part there was cultural and political continuity between the Northern and Southern Song. The Song came about after the Tang Dynasty, which had ruled over a unified China, collapsed in AD 907, ushering in a more than fifty year period of anarchy and political decentralization in China. During the period of decentralization, five dynasties claimed power, one of which was known as the “Later Zhou.” In 960, the Later Zhou was led by a child emperor who was protected by a palace army led by a man named Zhao Kuangyin. After serving as a loyal commander for some time, Zhao Kuangyin decided he wanted to rule so he deposed the child emperor in 960 and was proclaimed by his followers as Taizu (reigned 960-976), the first of the Song emperors. <ref> Kuhn, Dieter. <i>The Age of Confucian Rule: The Song Transformation of China.</i> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009), p. 19</ref><br />
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Taizu set up the Song capital at Kaifeng, which is where it would remain until the collapse of the Northern Song. Although the Song had to contend with powerful and sometimes bellicose neighbors, it differed from many pre-modern Chinese dynasties because it deemphasized, or even eschewed, martial culture. Song emperors placed the civil branch over the military, which was a direct byproduct of their stringent following of Confucian philosophy. The Song was also different from many previous Chinese dynasties in that merit was rewarded over nepotism: officials were chosen due to their knowledge of the Confucian canon, not their family connections. <ref> Kuhn, pgs. 31-39</ref> <br />
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The Song leaders’ focus on merit proved to be beneficial to the long-term goals of the dynasty as a new era of innovation took place in China beginning in the late tenth century. The invention of the movable type press in the eleventh century, probably by a scholar named Bi Sheng, replaced the more cumbersome woodblock press. Song officials quickly learned that not only could the movable type press be used to quickly disseminate paper documents, but it could also be used to print notes of financial exchange, which eventually became the first paper currency. <ref> Kuhn, p. 43</ref><br />
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===The Transition to Paper Currency in China===<br />
[[File: Song_dynasty_coins.jpg|300px|thumbnail|left|Coins from the Northern Song Period: the Holes in the Coins Are where the Strings Were Placed]]<br />
During the Qin (221-206 BC) and the Han (206 BC-AD 220) dynasties that preceded the Song, the standard currency used was known as the <i>guan</i>. One guan usually equaled 1,000 round bronze coins with square holes that were threaded on a string as a full unit, or “string,” <ref> Glahn, Richard von. “Monies of Account and Monetary Transition in China, Twelfth to Fourteenth Centuries.” <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i> 53 (2010) p. 465</ref> As the Song economy flourished, more and more copper strings were in circulation throughout the empire. The number reached 1.83 million strings in 1007 and five million by 1080, leading officials to add lead to the coins, which devalued the currency. <ref> Kuhn, pgs. 233-4</ref> Song economists knew that they could not further devalue the metal currency without adversely affecting the economy, so they developed the idea of paper currency.<br />
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Although paper currency was first introduced by the Song emperors, there are no extant examples. The development of paper currency came about quite naturally and was the result of high demand for bronze, copper, and iron, which were all used to make coins of various denominations. Along with the diminishing supply of metals used for currency, Chines scholars developed the new economic idea that held paper money as a means of payment and exchange, not as a value in itself. <ref> Kuhn, pgs. 234-6</ref> <br />
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The issuing of paper currency in Song China was as much of a process as the invention of paper currency itself. There was no single currency until the end of the dynasty, but instead there were several currency zones throughout China. The first paper currency used was the <i>jiaozi</i>, which was first issued in Sichuan. <ref> Glahn, Richard von. “Re-examining the Authenticity of Song Paper Money Specimens.” <i>Journal of Song-Yuan Studies</i> 36 (2006) p. 80</ref><br />
The use of the <i>jiaozi</i> proved to be quite successful, leading to the creation of numerous other paper currencies, the most widespread of which was the <i>huizi</i>.<br />
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The <i>huizi</i> was a paper bill that became the standard currency of the Southern Song in 1160. At first, one <i>huiz</i> equaled one “string,” but after awhile smaller dominations were created of 200, 300, and 500 coins strings. <ref> Kuhn, p. 239</ref> The Song’s use of the <i>huizi</i> was accompanied by two major details that were intended to make the bill enduring.<br />
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The first policy that the Southern Song rulers enacted concerning the <i>huiz</i> was mandating fixed terms of expiration. Between 1168 and 1264 the Southern Song emperors issued eighteen new <i>huizi</i> bills, primarily to mitigate counterfeiting, but also to control inflation. <ref> Glahn 2006, p. 81</ref> Routinely destroying the old notes certainly helped the Song rulers avoid economic problems, which was also helped by their linking the paper currency to silver.<br />
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Today, paper currency is not “backed” by gold, but for most of human history gold and silver were the value backing most national currencies. In Song China, as the number of bronze coins began to diminish, the paper notes eventually became linked to silver as the hard currency backing the paper money. After 1160, the <i>huizi</i> was denominated in bronze coin strings, but backed by silver. <ref> Glahn 2010, p. 466, 501</ref> Although the creation of paper currency was truly revolutionary and proved to be a medium-term boon for the Song economy, its misuse proved to be one of the final nails in the Southern Song’s coffin.<br />
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The Song’s issuance of paper currency worked well for nearly 100 years, but after awhile China was faced with the same economic problem as the Romans before them and countless later countries – inflation. There were an estimated 650 million strings on the market in 1246, which led to an extreme devaluation of the <i>huizi</i> and eventually runaway inflation. The Song leaders made the same mistake as other world leaders have in similar situations by printing more and more money, which only aggravated the inflationary cycle. The Song paper currency collapsed in 1264 and the dynasty itself was wiped out just fifteen years later. <ref> Kuhn, p. 241</ref> Whether the inflationary cycle was a symptom or one of the reasons for the Southern Song’s demise is open to argument, but there is no argument that it did not help the overall situation – the Song leaders could no longer pay to field armies nor could they pay annual tribute to their more martial minded neighbors in the north. <br />
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===The Impact of Song Paper Currency===<br />
The impact of the invention/discovery of paper currency during the Song Dynasty was profound to say the least. Although the concept never made its way to the West, it indeed spread throughout east Asia during the Middle Ages. The Jurchen Jin Dynasty, which ruled northern China from 1127 to 1234, issued paper notes in the mid-1150s based on the notes the Song rulers originally issued in Sichuan and later issued other notes that were tied to silver, as the Southern Song had done. <ref> Glahn 2010, p. 469, 472</ref> <br />
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The Song was replaced by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty and although foreign, the Yuan instituted a policy of cultural continuity, which included the use of paper money. Like the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, the Yuan rulers followed the Southern Song policy of tying their paper currency to silver. <ref> Glahn 2010, p. 483</ref> From China, the concept of paper money spread to other east Asian kingdoms such as Korea. <br />
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Perhaps one of the biggest impacts that the invention of paper money had in Asia was the diminishing value of bronze, copper, and iron coins. Once the Southern Song tied their paper notes to silver, the intrinsic value of metal coins declined, which resulted in much of those metals being exported to Japan. <ref> Glahn 2010, p. 501</ref> In fact, the use of paper currency in China hurt the metals industry in general as mining withered during the Southern Song. <ref> Smith, Paul J. “Do We Know as Much as We Need to Know About the Song Economy? Observations on the Economic Crisis of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries” <i>Journal of Song-Yuan Studies</i> 24 (1994) p. 329</ref> The Song discovery of paper currency truly had a great impact on east Asia, but it would be centuries before Europeans discovered the benefits and drawbacks of using paper notes.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[[Category: Asian History]] [[Category: Chinese History]] [[Category: Economic History]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_Events_Led_to_the_Vietnam_War_-_From_Partition_to_the_Viet_Cong&diff=13743What Events Led to the Vietnam War - From Partition to the Viet Cong2018-11-22T21:17:31Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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After the French defeat at the battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954, a peace conference was held in Geneva ending the Indonesian War between France and the Viet Minh. In addition to ending hostilities, the country of Vietnam was divided into two separate countries; North Vietnam or Democratic Republic of Vietnam and South Vietnam or the Republic of Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh and the Vietnamese Communist Party were in control of the north and Ngo Dinh Diem in control of the south. In addition, the agreement in Geneva called for reunified elections in 1956, with negotiations between the two countries to begin in 1955. Diem refused to negotiate about the unified elections and the proposed elections of 1956 were never held. The division of Vietnam lasted for twenty years.<br />
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===Consolidation by the North===<br />
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The communist north consolidated its power in a number of ways. First the North Vietnamese conducted a purge of counter-revolutionaries. Estimates of those imprisoned or killed range from 800 to 200,000. In addition between 1954 and 1956 over 400,000 Vietnamese civilians left the north for the south. Many of those that evacuated had sided with the French in the Indonesian War. As many as 85% of the refugees were Catholic, which was also the favored religion of Diem. With the state sponsored purge and the evacuation of former enemies left the north practically a political monolith. <br />
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Along with this concentration of power, the north looked to its neighbors to build a stronger communist coalition throughout the region. The first country that the North Vietnamese tried to influence was Laos. They supplied the Laotian communists with supplies and military training. In 1956 the first mentions of the Viet Cong surfaced in South Vietnam. While Northern support of the Viet Cong is dated in 1960 with the official founding of the National Liberation Front, or Viet Cong, there were many Viet Minh in the south after the Geneva Accords were signed. This group of focused on political agitation and other subversive activities. <br />
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===Consolidation In the South and Ngo Dinh Diem===<br />
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South Vietnam was controlled by Ngo Dinh Diem, but he and his allies had a tenuous hold on the country from the beginning. Diem faced his first serious threat in 1955 after being appointed the first prime minister of South Vietnam. Nguyen Van Hinh, a World War Two veteran who fought with the French resistance, launched a public criticism campaign against Diem. He was quite cavalier about a coup he was planning. However, Hinh overplayed his hand and did not have the support he needed to overthrow Diem. Hinh was force to resign his position as the Chief of Staff of the Southern Vietnamese Army and was exiled to France in 1954. The French, however, continued to support Diem’s political enemies in hopes of destabilizing the government and returning to the region. [[File:Diem.jpg|thumb|Ngo Dinh Diem]]<br />
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One such force was the Binh Xuyen, under the command of Le Van Vien, also known as Bay Vien. The Binh Xuyen were a separate military force in the Vietnam National Army, the Vietnamese military branch loyal to France. The Binh Xuyen was also involved in a great deal of criminal activity. After the partition of the country, the southern government, allowed them free reign provided they supported the government, especially in its anti-communist activities. The Binh Xuyen were in control of the capital city of Saigon. If Diem was going to have any semblance of control over South Vietnam, Bay Vien and the Binh Xuyen needed to be confronted.<br />
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At the end of March 1955, small armed engagements broke out throughout Saigon. It was chaos. Civilians were caught in the crossfire between the two forces. The Eisenhower administration was active in trying to find an opportunity to overthrow Diem because the US did not believe he could control the country, especially in the face of communist threat from the north. As the fighting continued, the push from Washington became even more intense. By the end of April however, after a month of fighting, Diem and the National Army began to use the largest ordinance it had to drive out the Binh Xuyen. It worked. The Binh Xuyen were forced from the city and were dispersed throughout the neighboring jungle. After the National Army victory, President Eisenhower called off the espionage for the time being. Diem had proven his ability as far as Washington was concerned, at least for the moment. <br />
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The final move for the consolidation of power under Diem was the refutation of the Emperor of Vietnam, Bảo Đại, the last vestige of monarchy and colonialism in the country. In October of 1955 a referendum was held, essentially voting for Diem and the establishment of the Republic of Vietnam or the retention of Dai as the head of state. Diem won what many have concluded was a fraudulent election. This is a fair assessment when a number of facts are considered. The 98.2% vote for Diem is hard to fathom and harder still to believe. Further, the number of votes cast was 380,000 more than the number of people registered to vote. Similarly, Diem carried the voting region of Saigon where only about 400,000 people were registered to vote. 605,000, however, voted for Diem from the district. Regardless, Diem was named President of the Republic of Vietnam. <br />
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===Combating Communism===<br />
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Diem was firmly in control of South Vietnam by the end of 1955. 1956 saw a number of key developments that helped to maintain Diem’s hold on power. The United States saw Diem as their best ally against the communist threat and formally pledged support to the Diem presidency. France pulled the last of their troops out of Vietnam in order to subdue another colonial holding, Algeria. This led to the Eisenhower administration supplying the Military Assistance Advisory Group to help train the South Vietnamese Army. <br />
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The next major objective was to reduce communist influence in the country by any and all means. It is estimated that between 1955 and 1957, over 12,000 southern Vietnamese people were killed because they were suspected of being communists. By 1958, over 40,000 were imprisoned as enemies of the state. This designation covered more people than communists did. Anyone espousing radical beliefs was considered dangerous and anyone who attempted to expose government corruption was also considered a threat. <br />
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The repressive tactics of Diem’s government led to many in the south to become disillusioned with current leadership. North Vietnam exploited this dissatisfied segment of the population. Small scale attacks were coordinated through Hanoi. The goal was not to set off a general war, but to further the unrest already present and continue to organize around that discontent. The more Diem tried to repress the guerilla attacks with broad strokes, the more sympathy the insurgents gained. <br />
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The ultimate goal of the north was a unified Vietnam, specifically a communist Vietnam. To that end, the prime minister of the North, Phan Van Dong, proposed beginning talks between the two countries. Diem refused outright. It was the last real attempt at a peaceful reunification. Later that year, in June, the North Vietnamese took control of Lao villages that they contended were historically part of Vietnam. . North Vietnam still supported the communists in Laos and their attempts to overthrow the government there, but that had an ulterior motive as well. By seizing the border territory, the next step of the strategy was set. In 1959, the North Vietnamese with their Laos communist allies attacked Laos and took key portions of territory. Ho Chi Minh declared a People's War against the south with the intention of reunification. The attack on Laos was a strategic one. By controlling nearby territory in Laos, invading South Vietnam would be much easier. Also, as would become a key to the North’s ability to continue the war, moving through Laos enabled the North to supply its troops and allies. The roads and paths used to do this gained a famous name as the Vietnam War progressed, the Ho Chi Minh Trail.<br />
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The influx of refugees in 1954 presented additional challenges for Diem. The majority of refugees were Catholics, whom Diem favored over other religions. In an effort to curtail the communist incursions that seemed to be multiplying daily, Diem tried to use the refugees to his advantage. A major part of his counterinsurgency program was resettling refugees in various parts of South Vietnam, preferably away from the provinces closest to North Vietnam. Throughout the 1950s, Diem tried to resettle people numerous times. Corruption, forced resettlements and infiltration by communists into the programs made the relocation attempts failures and built even greater resentment toward the Diem government. Even worse for Diem, the United States did not favor any of Diem’s programs and strained the relationship.<br />
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===Founding of the Viet Cong and a Failed Coup: 1960===<br />
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By 1960, the political situation in South Vietnam was reaching a crisis point. North Vietnam officially established the National Liberation Front, more commonly referred to as the Viet Cong. Using the Ho Chi Minh trail, North Vietnam supplied the rebel army in the south throughout the coming decade and beyond. <br />
[[File:VietCong.jpg|thumb|Viet Cong Soldier]]<br />
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It wasn’t just the communists that were threatening Diem. In November of 1960, officers from the Airborne Division of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam attempted a coup against Diem. The nationalist dissidents were able to take control of Saigon and the presidential palace, but because of poor planning, as negotiations between Diem and the rebels occurred, troops loyal to Diem were able to enter the city and put down the coup. The US was even more concerned with not only the stability of the Diem presidency, but in his ability to lead the country at all, especially when faced with the escalating war with the north. Diem held on to power and the US as an ally, but for how long was becoming a more pressing question each month.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Anderson, David L. Editor. ''The Columbia History of the Vietnam War.'' New York, Columbia University Press, 2011.<br />
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Lawrence, Mark Atwood. ''The Vietnam War: A Concise International History.'' New York, Oxford Press, 2008.<br />
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Office of the Historian. Milestones in the History of US Foreign Relations. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968<br />
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USA Today. Vietnam War Timeline 9/11/2017. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2017/09/11/vietnam-war-timeline-u-s-involvement-over-decades/653693001/</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_Public_Aquariums_Develop&diff=13744How Did Public Aquariums Develop2018-11-22T21:17:31Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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[[File:Goldfish in Fish Swimming Amid Falling Flowers by Liu Cai (cropped).jpg|thumbnail|left|350px|Figure 1. Goldfish being kept in a pond. Goldfish were the first type of fish purposely raised as pets. ]]<br />
Large public aquariums have become fixtures in most major urban regions. In some places, they have become among the leading attractions for city tourism, where many aquariums have also expanded into conservation efforts and applied research along with being tourist destinations. The history of such aquariums is not completely modern, although the form in which we know aquariums today is mostly a recent development.<br />
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===Early History===<br />
Artificial fish ponds were likely the first type of aquarium in antiquity. In ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, fish were likely placed in artificial ponds, as most cities were located along rivers and fish likely served as sources of food but possibly also amusement. It is possible that sacred fish were kept in temples not so much as pets but rather as symbols or embodiement of fish gods. For instance, the god Dagon, mentioned in the Bible, was often depicted as a fish god. The Egyptian goddess Hatmehit, similarly, may have had fish represented with her. In Egyptian reliefs, fish have been displayed as being placed in artificial environments, including ponds or lakes created in gardens or specific places.<ref>For more on early fish keeping in Mesopotamia and Egypt, see: Vernon N. Kisling (ed.) (2001) <i>Zoo and aquarium history: ancient animal collections to zoological gardens.</i> Boca Raton, Fla, CRC Press.</ref> <br />
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Perhaps China is the best known early culture for developing what became fish pets. China, for over 2000 years, has known to have bred carp for their color and beauty, what we call today as goldfish (Figure 1). The koi, a type of carp perhaps originally from Iran and Central Asia, was likely imported to China and over centuries developed the variety of colors we see in many types of goldfish today. The Jing dynasty (265-420 CE) was the first to record the process of raising goldfish for their color and raising as ornamental fish. While initially the carp may have been raised for food, it was noticed that sometimes fish naturally produced colors such as orange or red as a type of mutation. This led to these fish being bred for their colors in royal settings and estates of the wealthy. The raising of goldfish soon became a source of pride for royal Chinese figures and officials, where goldfish varieties were even raised indoors, enabling some types that would normally die easily in an outdoor environment to thrive and adapt better to the indoors.<ref>For more on the development of goldfish, see: Ricardo Calado, Ike Olivotto, Miquel Planas Oliver, & Joan Holt (eds.) (2017) <i>Marine ornamental species aquaculture.</i> Chichester, West Sussex, UK, Wiley-Blackwell, pg. 4.</ref><br />
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The Romans may have been the first to put glass in their indoor aquariums. Sea fish were popular for food in ancient Rome, where archaeological remains suggest that the Romans may have even constructed their ships to transport live fish through tanks contained within the vessels that would suction in sea water. This taste for live fish may have prompted development of aquarium tanks. At first, Romans seemed to have used marble to keep sea fish in. Later, as glass technologies improved and became more durable, the Romans, by the 1st century CE, began to use glass in tanks. This allowed those wanting to eat fish to view what they were getting more easily. Romans did likely keep fish as pets as well in ornamental ponds. In fact, they may have been the first to keep saltwater fish as pets. However, it seems most fish tanks were likely used for keeping fish to eat.<ref>For more on how Romans kept fish, see: 1996. <i>Aquarium Fish Magazine</i>, 8 (9-11), pg. 49. </ref><br />
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===Development of the Public Aquarium===<br />
[[File:L'aquarium; vue intérieure.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|Figure 2. The first large public aquarium in Paris.]]<br />
Where fish tanks did exist, they were mostly for private use in the ancient world. Fish ponds did, however, become more public spaces in Medieval Europe, as cities and towns developed these as places to store fish for food and raise them as a type of fish farm. In the 17th century, goldfish were introduced to Europe, which, for the first time, brought a type of fish that exclusively was bred for its looks rather than taste. With the development of palatial gardens, goldfish, similar to China and Japan, began to be raised as ornamental animals.<ref>For more on fish ponds in Medieval Europe, see: Adamson, M.W. (2004) Food in medieval times. <i>Food through history.</i> Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press, pg. 42.</ref><br />
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While interest in ornamental fish increased in Europe with greater access to wealth and contacts with China, the main development that made public aquariums took time to develop. The major development was the innovation of the Wardian case, which was a type of glass container used to house plants initially so that they can be studied and observed. Although this development by Jeanne Villepreux-Power in 1832 was made for the study of plants, it was soon realized that live fish could be contained within these glass enclosures along with the plants for long periods. Soon after, others began to experiment with a variety of fish species, where they were placed in tanks to see how they would respond. It was evident to scientists that plants that lived in water provided oxygen that fish could use, allowing may types of fish to be kept indefinitely so long as the number of plants was sufficient for the number of fish.<ref>For more on early fish tanks, see: Hibberd, S. (2017) <i>The Aquarium and Water-Cabinet.</i>Nikosia, TP Verone Publishing.</ref><br />
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Mostly, until about the 1850s, fish keeping in aquariums was the privy of scientists or those wealthy enough to have such interests. Things changed after the Great Exhibition in London in 1851. The first large public aquarium was built at the London Zoo (in 1853) in Regents Park, where the tanks were mostly metal-framed structures created by Phillip Gosse, who used the term aquarium for the first time. The so-called "Fish House" in the London Zoo pioneered the use of a series of fish tank containers along the walls and other exhibits in the main floor of a dedicated building to fish, which now provided the odel for other zoos and dedicated aquariums to emulate. Now it became fashionable to collect exotic and strange species for public display, particularly as public curiosity fueled interest. By the 1850s and 1860s, other cities in Europe, such as Paris, and North America began to build large public aquariums (Figure 2).<ref>For more on the early public aquariums, see: Kisling, 2000</ref><br />
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===Later Developments===<br />
While glass containers improved and were getting larger by the late 19th century, particularly as more major cities in Europe and North America began to build aquariums, the general approach to keeping fish did not change much during the late 19th century. It was only in the early 1900s that more innovations made it possible to dispense with plants all together. Since the 1830s, the "balanced aquarium" approach of keeping fish meant that you could only have a given number of fish in a tank based on the number of plants you had. Charcoal-based filtration and mechanical air pumps were invented to allow oxygen to be pumped into tanks as a replacement for plants; this soon became the primary way in which tanks kept fish throughout the early 20th century, although plants were often retained for their ornamental qualities.<ref>For more on early filter technologies and pumps, see: Delbeek, J.C. & Sprung, J. (2005) <i>The reef aquarium science, art et technology.</i> Coconut Grove (Florida), Ricordea Publishing.<br />
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In the 1950s, the undergravel filter was introduced, which was a way to pump air through the base of the tanks (or the gravel acting as the base of the aquarium). From the 1950s and into the 1970s, more varieties of fish were also introduced at aquariums to further peak the interest of the public. During the 1960s, dolphinariums were developed in North America first and then later Europe, where this proved to be very popular in drawing larger crowds to aquariums and what soon developed as larger private safari and other parks. The 1960s also saw the development of new sealant technologies that allowed glass only rather than glass and metal aquariums to be developed.<ref>For more on the modern aquarium and its development, see: Hemdal, J.F. (2003) <i>Aquarium fish breeding.</i>Hauppauge, N.Y, Barron’s, pg. 8.</ref><br />
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Filters continued to be improved, including the wet-dry filter in the 1980s, that allowed more exotic corals to be kept more easily. With the environmental movements of the 1970s, aquariums, similar to zoos, increasingly began to focus towards conservation efforts. Major oil spill disasters, for instance the Exxon Valdez, led rescued sea otters and wildlife to be transported to aquariums such as the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago. In fact, for decades, the Shedd was the largest aquarium anywhere and pioneered the development of permanent saltwater fish displays. Other major aquariums, such as the National Aquarium in Baltimore, have largely re-branded themselves as research and conservation facilities, although public display helps to fund their activities and educate the public.<ref>For more on the role of aquariums today in marine and freshwater conservation, see: Helfman, G.S. (2007) <i>Fish conservation: a guide to understanding and restoring global aquatic biodiversity and fishery resources.</i> Washington, Island Press.</ref><br />
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===Summary===<br />
Modern aquariums largely began to develop in the 1830s; however, their concepts go back much further. Although ancient Near East and Egyptian societies likely kept fish and perhaps even pet fish, Chinese cultures were the first to greatly focus on raising fish specifically for their ornamental looks and display. A great limitation was fish tanks and ways to allow fish to easily breath did not develop for some time. In fact, it was only in the 20th century that artificial pumps have allowed a variety of tanks and fish species to be kept. New pump technologies and sealants for fish tanks have now made aquariums relatively easy to keep, helping to make fish, today, the most common form of pet globally.<br />
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==References==<br />
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[[Category:Wikis]][[Category:Leisure History]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_Enlightenment_Ideas_Influence_Modern_Economics&diff=13742How Did Enlightenment Ideas Influence Modern Economics2018-11-22T21:17:30Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>[[File: Adam_smith.jpg|300px|thumbnail|left|Adam Smith (1723-1790)]]__NOTOC__<br />
The Enlightenment was a period in world history that roughly corresponds with the eighteenth century, originating in the nations of Britain, France, and the German-speaking kingdoms and then spreading to the rest of Europe and the European colonies. It was a period when philosophers such as Rousseau, Voltaire, and Locke advocated ideas of political freedom, which ultimately influenced movement toward more democratic and republican governments in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Although the Enlightenment is known today more for the political ideas that came from it, there were also major changes in economic theories and practices that took place within the milieu of the Enlightenment.<br />
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Beginning in the Early Modern Period of world history, roughly during the early sixteenth century, corresponding with the Age of Exploration and the rush to conquer and colonize the New World, a new economic system developed in Europe. The old feudal economy was replaced by mercantilism, which was a financial system whereby the mother country would exploit the resources of her colonies and then sell manufactured goods back to the colonies. The system worked well for some time, but by the eighteenth century, numerous problems became very obvious. Eventually, Enlightenment philosophers such as David Hume and Adam Smith realized that not only was the mercantile system inefficient, it was in many ways anathema to the basic ideas of the Enlightenment. The economic ideas of Smith, Hume, and others were ultimately championed by the leaders of the most powerful countries, which helped to usher in the Classical Gold Standard and modern capitalism. <br />
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====The Enlightenment====<br />
The Enlightenment proved to be one of the most revolutionary periods in world history as it transformed the way in which societies viewed the relationship between the ruler and the ruled. The movement first began in Great Britain in the late seventeenth century, which was experiencing profound political change, and then spread to France and the German-speaking kingdoms. Some of the basic ideas of the Enlightenment were increased political freedom for all classes, more political equality, and a diminished role of government. Many, but not all, of the most prominent Enlightenment philosophers, were anti-monarchy and most were ardent believers in free trade. <br />
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Regarding economics, Enlightenment thinkers believed that although commerce often promoted self-interest and sometimes greed, it also helped to mitigate other negative aspects of society, particularly concerning governments, thereby ultimately promoting social harmony. As the eighteenth century progressed, economics played an even more significant role in the Enlightenment due to the drastic changes that were taking place in society from the onset of the Industrial Revolution. <ref> Coker, Edward W. “Adam Smith’s Concept of the Social System.” <i>Journal of Business Ethics</i> 9 (1990) p. 139</ref> In order to keep up with the rapid technological changes that were affecting European society, especially in the realm of the economy, Enlightenment philosophers began taking note of the role the mercantile system played in people’s lives and how much it stifled freedom.<br />
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====David Hume and Economics====<br />
[[File: David_Hume_Ramsay.jpg|300px|thumbnail|left|David Hume (1711-1776)]]<br />
Among the most important writers of the British Enlightenment was Scottish thinker David Hume (1711-1776). Two of Hume’s most important works were <i>Essays</i> and <i>The History of England</i> and although neither of those works, or any of Hume’s writings for that matter, never focused specifically on international relations or macroeconomics, his thoughts on those issues were scattered throughout all of his works. <ref> Haar, Edwin van de. “David Hume and International Political Theory: A Reappraisal.” <i>Review of International Studies</i> 34 (2008) p. 226</ref><br />
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Hume’s specific ideas on economics were quite nuanced and revolutionary for the period. He believed that the idea of the nation-state was essentially a good concept and that healthy amounts of national pride would result in economic well-being, as well as advances in the arts and sciences. Like Adam Smith, Hume opposed the contemporary economic system of mercantilism because he believed it hampered free commerce through export controls, which had the ripple effect of stifling freedom in general. <ref> Haar, pgs. 228-30</ref><br />
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Hume was one of the first thinkers to promote the idea of true “free trade,” unbounded by borders, tariffs, or other taxes on imports. He argued that foreign trade increases the stock of labor in a nation, which can then be used for public works projects. To Hume, imports were good as they were a sign of wealth in a nation and that increased imports usually lead to more luxury items, which ultimately meant that the people would be happier. Finally, David Hume thought that under a truly free economy, trade imbalances would not be a problem and that the amount of gold and silver leaving the country in such a system would be negligible because foreign investment would be promoted due to the lack of tariffs. <ref> Haar, p. 236</ref><br />
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Although Hume recognized that sometimes wars were inevitable, he believed that they were for the most part terrible for economic progress. Hume argued that any benefits gained from territorial conquest were often mitigated by the fact that wars usually disturb free commerce, create lazy laborers, and are almost always expensive and increase the national debt. <ref> Haar, p. 234</ref> Ultimately, the entire concept of the empire itself was financially ruined some and for that reason alone should be abolished, Hume advocated. He believed that empires were usually beneficial to the mother country in the beginning, but almost always became financial burdens that hurt the overall economy. <ref> Haar, p. 236</ref> David Hume’s revolutionary economic ideas resonated with many Enlightenment thinkers, no more so than his fellow Scotsman, Adam Smith.<br />
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====Adam Smith and the Enlightenment====<br />
[[File: Colonisation_1754png.png|300px|thumbnail|left|Map Depicting the Mother Countries and Their Colonial Possessions during the Enlightenment]]<br />
Adam Smith (1723-1790) synthesized and improved on many of David Hume economic theories to create an economic worldview that would influence global economics until the present. In Smith’s most famous work, <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>, and in his earlier yet no less important, <i>The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i>, he argued that economic freedom was intertwined with political freedom and that many societal benefits actually came from greed, which was a process he referred to as the “Invisible Hand.” Smith’s philosophy was extremely optimistic, as he argued people were inherently good and that economically driven men would seek to better themselves while simultaneously promoting the welfare of society. <ref> Coker, p. 140</ref> But what made Smith a revolutionary thinker was his strident opposition to the old economic order.<br />
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Smith believed that the mercantile system was obsolete and inherently unjust because it undermined any attempts to build and/or conduct a fair and honest government. Much like Hume, Smith argued that the free exchange of commodities would lead to greater political freedom and the free exchange of ideas. <ref> Muthu, Sankar. “Adam Smith’s Critique of International Trading Companies: Theorizing ‘Globalization’ in the Age of the Enlightenment.” <i>Political Theory</i> 36 (2008) p. 189</ref> In the mercantile system, government subsidized companies, such as the British East India Company, were given monopolies to control all trade in a specific colony, but Smith believed the benefits the system may have provided to greater society were negligible at best and were usually more of a detriment. <br />
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“But these kinds of monopolies derange more or less the natural distribution of the stock of the society: but they do not always derange it in the same way.” <ref> Smith, Adam. <i>An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.</i> (Lausanne, Switzerland: MetaLibri, 2007), p. 489</ref><br />
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Although Smith, like Hume, was a pragmatist and knew that wars were inevitable and that more powerful countries often rule over the weak, he opposed colonialism just for the sake of it. Smith wrote much of his works during the decades leading up to and during the American Revolution, which he often cited as an example of the follies of colonialism. He argued that colonialism was extremely costly for many reasons, including the fact that the government subsidized companies carrying out the efforts were often inefficient and could rely on government bailouts. <ref> Muthu, p. 191</ref> Smith believed that it was pointless for the mother country to subsidize such affairs:<br />
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“If any of the provinces of the British empire cannot be made to contribute towards the support of the whole empire, it is surely time that Great Britain should free herself from the expense of defending those provinces in time or war, and of supporting any part of their civil or military establishments in time of peace, and endeavour to accommodate her future views and designs to the real mediocrity of her circumstances.” <ref> Smith, p. 740</ref><br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
There is little doubt that Enlightenment philosophers David Hume and Adam Smith indelibly influenced the modern economic world. Their critique of the mercantile economic system, particularly the idea of government-subsidized monopolies and imperialism, influenced political and economic leaders in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the economic policies practiced by the most industrialized nations of the world more closely resembled what Smith and Hume envisioned. The government's that subsidized monopoly companies were slowly dying, tariffs and other trade restrictions were not as common, and the Classical Gold Standard was the primary economic regime. The days of empire were also coming to a gradual end, signaling the end of one economic and political order and the beginning of another that in many ways still exist.<br />
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====References====<br />
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{{Contributors}}<br />
[[Category: 18th Century History]] [[Category: European History]] [[Category: Economic History]] [[Category: Intellectual History]] [[Category: Enlightenment History]] [[Category:Wikis]]</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Origins_of_World_War_One_-_Top_Ten_Booklist&diff=13740Origins of World War One - Top Ten Booklist2018-11-22T21:17:28Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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[[File:French_soldiers.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|French soldiers flaming German trenches in Flanders]]<br />
The First World War was an incredibly destructive and wide ranging catastrophe. Not only did it dramatically change the map of Europe and the world, it ultimately led to further instability and a second world war. There has long been a debate about the exact cause of the First World War. The assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand triggered the war but its ultimate causes were far more complex. These works all tend to agree that no government wanted to start a general war in Europe and dismiss the old idea that Germany was solely responsible for the war. They books shift blame for the immediate start of the war either on the miscalculations or errors of judgments of politicians. They also all agree that nationalism and international rivalry encouraged reckless decision making by governments and the militaries. <br />
[[File:Guns_of_August.jpg|thumbnail|250px|[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0345476093/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0345476093&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=78538aecb1e3ec8e2a8768740f38b078 The Guns of August]]]<br />
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Barbara Tuchman. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0345476093/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0345476093&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=78538aecb1e3ec8e2a8768740f38b078 The Guns of August]</i> (1962)<br />
Barabara Tuchman's Pulitzer Prize winning book narrates and analyzes the immediate causes of the war. She discusses the strategies and policies of all those involved in the declaration of war. The book is a work of diplomatic and political history and Tuchman outlines the series of errors that according to her led to the onset of war. She asserts that none of those involved envisaged that any conflict in 1914 could become a global conflict. Tuchman believed that politicians and soldiers underestimated the possibility that Europe could descend into a general war. Politicians miscalculated that economic ties would mean that war would be averted because all the European nations were economically interdependent. The military mistakenly believed that any conflict would be limited. These miscalculations resulted in politicians and generals making decisions without considering their impact and this was to plunge the continent into war.<br />
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Fay, Sidney, <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/092389134X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=092389134X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=30f3aa9e1fdf4975e8c401e7e34e9600 The Origins of the World War]</i> (1929)<br />
This book was written in the immediate aftermath of the war. It is a two volume work, the first dealing with the underlying causes of the war, which were nationalism and a fundamentally unstable international system. The author believed that the short term cause of the war was the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand in Sarajevo. This assassination was part of a plot by the Serbian terrorist group the Black Hand. Fay, showed that a single event, the assassination led to a series of events over a period of weeks that led to the outbreak of war. Government mishandling of these events were another important factor in the outbreak of war.<br />
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Gordon Martel. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1405874317/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1405874317&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=dae35f8407a1cc20fbbb446072116d50 The Origins of the First World War]</i>. (2001)<br />
Martel summarizes and analyzes the policies and errors of judgments that led to a war in Europe. He provides an overview of the system of alliances in Europe prior to the war and how this system dominated international affairs. Martel explains the position of each of the great powers and how they saw the system as protecting their interests. The author shows that the system of alliances was fundamentally unstable. This was demonstrated when the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand led to its collapse. For Martel the alliance system in Europe, designed to create a ’balance of power’ and secure the peace, was fatally flawed and ultimately plunged Europe into the most barbaric war in centuries.<br />
[[File:The_Sleepwalkers.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0061146668/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0061146668&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=38982d06b625fe0770ea3ac9f09c4f36 The Sleepwalkers]]]<br />
Christopher Clarke. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0061146668/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0061146668&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=38982d06b625fe0770ea3ac9f09c4f36 The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War]</i>. (2014)<br />
Clarke concentrates on the political decisions that led to the outbreak of war. He argues that none of the leaders were interested in starting a general war. All the leaders wanted peace. However, they made a series of mistakes and errors in their policies that led to misunderstandings and mutually suspicions among the competing nations. When Archduke Ferdinand was assassinated these led to the declaration of war. According to the thesis in this book, Europe was led into war by a series of political and diplomatic blunders.<br />
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Sean MacMeekin. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674072332/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0674072332&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=e65b2847630f24d9b4d51be909c8ea3c The Russian Origins of the First World War]</i> (2013).<br />
According to the thesis in this work, it was Russian statesmen who unleashed the war through their conscious policy decisions based on imperial ambitions in the Balkans. The Russian Empire had ambitions in the Balkans and especially wanted to conquer the Bosporus in the Ottoman Empire. The Tsar and his ministers saw the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand as an opportunity to achieve their aims. They used their alliance with France and Britain to ensure that Germany would not threaten Russia. However, the Russians only sought a local war in the Balkans and did not want a general war. They tragically miscalculated impact of their decisions.<br />
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Anika Mombauer. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00H1S0TJG/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B00H1S0TJG&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f637b3c9512b940da4a756117c67a17e The Origins and Cause of the First World War: Controversies and Consensus]</i>. 2002<br />
This book provides a general survey of the theories on the causes of the First World War. It discusses the long term causes of the war, including nationalism, militarism and an inherently unstable international system. It discusses the traditional theory that the war was caused by German aggression. The book also considers how ‘revisionists’ have disputed this theory and attribute the cause of the war to other factors. <br />
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William Mulligan. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00GA22KDC/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B00GA22KDC&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=ba5337d23f8c5e0d4ccbe8e71f9ad97c The Origins of the First World War]</i>. 2010<br />
William Mulligan argues that the war was a far from inevitable outcome of international system. He also does not believe that the war was down to German aggression. A chance event, namely the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand led to a series of events and poor decisions by governments and diplomats that led to a brutal war. The author demonstrates that politicians and diplomats can have limited control over events. <br />
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Stevenson, David, <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0465081851/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0465081851&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=fdd5277032c32dbc17f8878773807ef6 Cataclysm: The First World War as Political Tragedy]</i>. 2005<br />
Stevenson believes that the traditional view that politicians lost control of events and that German aggression was responsible for the war are wrong. He believed that governments took risks during after the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand. They were intent on furthering their own interests and engaged in irresponsible behaviour. For example, the Austro-Hungarians unrealistic demands on Serbia, after the assassination were typical of the reckless policies that plunged Europe and the world into war. <br />
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Steve Miller (editor) <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0691023492/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0691023492&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=750973e9c3be3a390649efa086eed55a Military strategy and the origins of the First World War]</i> (1991).<br />
The book includes Paul Kennedy's "The First World War and the International Power System," Michael Howard's "Men Against Fire: Expectations of War in 1914," Stephen Van Evera's "The Cult of the Offensive and the Origins of the First World War," Jack Snyder's "Civil-Military Relations and the Cult of the Offensive, 1914 and 1984," and Richard Ned Lebow's "Windows of Opportunity: Do States Jump Through Them?" In all the essays they show that politics obliged the military to adopt strategies that were offensive in nature. When a diplomatic crisis did occur it resulted in the continents militaries, especially Germany’s going on the offensive and this triggered a general war in Europe.<br />
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Parkinson, Roger. <i>The Origin of World War One.</i> (1962)<br />
This work discusses the immediate origin of the First World War. It presents the traditional argument that Germany was determined to secure its position in Europe. The author showed that a culture that glorified war and nationalism led many in Germany to believe that war was inevitable and welcome in order for the greatness of the Germans to be recognized. This cultural and social factors led to the German high command to actively plan for war. The Archduke Ferdinand’s assassination and the July Crisis were exploited by Germany, to start the war that they had long wanted and which they firmly believed that they would win. <br />
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[[Category:Booklists]] [[Category:World War One History]] [[Category:Military History]] [[Category:Political History]][[Category:History Booklists]][[Category:Expert Booklists]][[Category:20th Century History]]<br />
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{{Mediawiki:WWI}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Could_Another_Alphabet_Have_Developed&diff=13739Could Another Alphabet Have Developed2018-11-22T21:17:27Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>The alphabet used in most languages derives from the ancient Canaanite alphabet that developed in the early to mid 2nd millennium BCE in the Sinai region. This alphabet is based on Egyptian hieroglyphs, where the early developers simply took hieroglyphs and simplified them to more basic sounds and symbols. Over time, this developed into the letters that we are familiar with. However, this was not the only alphabet that developed in that time period. In fact, perhaps somewhat later in the 2nd millennium BCE, another competing alphabet developed.<br />
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==The Other Alphabet==<br />
The main other alphabet that developed was based on cuneiform (Figure 1). During the early and middle 2nd millennium BCE, the two most common scripts in the ancient Near East were Egyptian hieroglyphs and cuneiform, which derived from ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and Syria). The cuneiform-based alphabet that developed took hold in the ancient city of Ugarit, which was an important Late Bronze Age city (1600-1200 BCE) located on the Mediterranean coast in modern day Syria. The city of Ugarit was a kingdom that often was a vassal state to larger powers such as the Hittites and Egyptians that were powerful in the Late Bronze Age. However, Ugarit was a wealthy merchant town that had extensive trade networks across the Mediterranean and likely inland regions in the Near East.<ref>For more on Ugarit, see: Yon, Marguerite. 2006. <i>The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra.</i> Winona Lake, Ind: Eisenbrauns.</ref> This made it an influential city as well as a wealthy one.<br />
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Neither the hieroglyphs-based alphabet, which became the Canaanite alphabet, nor the cuneiform one were widespread in the 2nd millennium BCE. In fact, the more complicated hieroglyphs and cuneiform scripts that were non-alphabetical were still dominant in the region and were utilized. In particular, cuneiform and Akkadian specifically were the common script and language used in communication between states and likely merchants. Overall, although two alphabet scripts came into existence, there presence was limited due to the key political powers and trade networks established at the time that promoted the more ancient scripts.<ref>For more on the history of the Late Bronze Age, see: Steel, Louise. 2013. <i>Materiality and Consumption in the Bronze Age Mediterranean.</i> Routledge Studies in Archaeology v.8. New York: Routledge.</ref><br />
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The Ugaritic alphabet contained 30 letters and was written from left to right. In addition to people within Ugarit, surrounding Hurrian populations, who are linguistically related to modern Armenian, also used the language. The script was also a more simplified version of cuneiform, making it far easier to read and replicate. In fact, some scholars suggest that cuneiform only influenced it based on the writing system, that is pressing wedges into wet clay, while the actual shape of the overall letters may be less related to cuneiform. There does seem to be a possible missing link between ancient cuneiform and the Ugaritic alphabet, where scholars debate what the link might be. In effect, there is debate as to how much cuneiform influenced this alphabet, but at the very least the design of individual wedges and the use of clay and a stylus like that in cuneiform clearly influenced the script.<ref>For more on the Ugaritic alphabet, see: Watson, Wilfred G. E., and N. Wyatt, eds. 2015. <i>Handbook of Ugaritic Studies.</i> Handbuch Der Orientalistik. Atlanta: SBL Press.</ref><br />
[[File:2000px-Ugaritic-alphabet-chart.svg.png|thumbnail|Figure 1. The Ugaritic alphabet.]]<br />
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==Why it Failed==<br />
By 1300 BCE, Ugarit (Figure 2) was at the center of an increasingly widespread trade system that spanned the Mediterranean to Central Asia. Towns like Ugarit not only became wealthy but they were also influenced by many different cultures, as merchants from many part of the ancient world were going through the city. Canaanite populations had begun to spread the Proto-Sinaitic script and began developing the Canaanite alphabet, which is the alphabet that eventually influenced our own and most others, to other regions, although it likely did not go beyond the eastern Mediterranean regions of the Levant and Egypt. The Ugaritic alphabet at this time did have a good chance of influencing other scripts, and thus potentially influencing our own alphabet, as Ugarit was highly influential. However, other Canaanite cities had likely begun to adopt the Proto-Sinaitic-based script (i.e., the emerging Canaanite alphabet) in the southern Levant to the south of Ugarit.<ref>For more on the Bronze alphabets, see: Healey, John F. 1990. <i>The Early Alphabet. Reading the Past.</i> London / Published for the Trustees of the British Museum by British Museum Publications. John F. Healey.</ref><br />
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The major event, however, that ended any possibility for the Ugaritic alphabet to influence our own was the Sea People disruptions that occurred by ca. 1200 BCE. We still do not exactly know what this series of events were and there may have been a number of related and unrelated events. Possible triggers include climate change, earthquakes, and various wars that caused various population movements across the Mediterranean and Near East. In any case, what we do know is that the great trade networks that were established began to be severely disrupted. Cities, such as Ugarit, were attacked and destroyed by people who almost resembled vikings, as they were seaborne raiders that attacked many of the wealth cities along the Levant. A dramatic letter even describes the impending attack on the city. Major states at this time were either collapsing or retreated from parts of the Near East. The events not only created a major disruption to trade but also political and social life in the region for the next two hundred years. In effect, it created a dark age where we know relatively little what happened in the years from around 1200-1000 BCE. What we do know is that the Ugaritic alphabet seemed to have gone extinct by then as the city of Ugarit was destroyed. In a relatively sudden manner, a rival alphabetical script was extinguished.<ref>For more on the Late Bronze Age collapse, see: Cline, Eric H. 2015. <i>1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed.</i> Princeton: Princeton University Press.</ref><br />
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The events, however, now created a perfect environment for the Canaanite alphabet to thrive and spread much further. As the major states that wrote in cuneiform and hieroglyphs either collapsed or receded in power, new population groups either moved into the region or developed from the older Semitic groups that existed there. These groups now searched for an easier script to use, as they were no longer bounded by the major scripts used by the larger states. Perhaps not surprisingly, they turned to the Canaanite alphabet and used it because it was relatively easy and there were no major alternatives by then. This alphabet soon developed differently in various regions, where it was also transported by Phoenician merchants. Thus, although some call the early alphabet the Phoenician alphabet, in reality it probably was not the Phoenicians who developed the alphabet but rather they helped to spread it because they soon resumed merchant activities across the Mediterranean. This led to the Greeks and eventually others to adopt the now spreading script. With the dawn of major empires reemerging in the Iron Age, by about 800 BCE, the spread of the alphabet increased further and reached more distant regions.<ref>For more on the spread of the Canaanite alphabet, see: Senner, Wayne M., ed. 1991. <i>The Origins of Writing.</i> 1st paperback ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, pg. 90.</ref><br />
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In effect, it was invasion by the Sea Peoples that destroyed one alphabet, the Ugaritic one, and enabled another, the Canaanite alphabet, to then spread. Such events in history indicate that sometimes sudden invasions or disruptions to the social and political norm create major power and social voids that are filled by new populations groups that are likely to promulgate new ideas and spread them.<br />
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[[File:Syrien, historische Stadt Ugarit.2.JPG|thumbnail|Figure 2. Remains of Ugarit]]<br />
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==Could it Have Been Different?==<br />
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If the Sea Peoples and the related disruptions did not occur, would it have been possible for the Ugaritic alphabet to become our own? Obviously we will never know but immediately before the collapse of Ugarit it was clear that this city was influential and important. The alphabet they invented did not seem to have spread very far, however, when the city was destroyed, which is likely why it went suddenly extinct. However, if the city survived, then it is possible that a cuneiform-based script may have spread. Nevertheless, we should also consider that the script was essentially made to be written in clay, where the wedges are created because of using a stylus on clay. Thus, it is possible that even if the cuneiform-based alphabet survived, then it would have had to evolve to make it more amenable to other writing systems and tools that later developed. Specifically, parchment and later paper would have possibly made the cuneiform symbols not as easy to write. However, as the Canaanite alphabet has shown, the symbols, because they were simplified to begin with, could have evolved rapidly to new developing writing systems and tools. Thus, despite being initially limited to being written on clay tablets, it is possible that the Ugaritic alphabet could have changed and evolved to other media used for writing. One only has to look at how cuneiform was often used in stone inscriptions, for instance, to notice that the script could change to a relevant media as needed.<ref>For more on the tools and media of ancient writing, see: Crowley, D. J., and Paul Heyer, eds. 2011. <i>Communication in History: Technology, Culture, Society.</i> 6th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon/Pearson.</ref><br />
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==Summary==<br />
The alphabet that developed derived from ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. However, this was not a well established script even hundred of years after it had developed in the Sinai and Near East. This gave opportunity for another rival script to develop, namely the cuneiform-based Ugaritic alphabet. It was a sudden change of events that led to the destruction of Ugarit that ultimately made the Canaanite alphabet become the dominant alphabet that has influenced almost all alphabets today. If those events did not happen, it is not clear that this would have been the case as Ugarit was an influential trade center.<br />
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==References==</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Why_was_Epicurus_and_his_philosophy_so_important&diff=13738Why was Epicurus and his philosophy so important2018-11-22T21:17:26Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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[[File:Px-Epikouros BM 1843.jpg|thumbnail|275px|left|Figure 1. Bust of Epicurus.]]<br />
Epicurus is often associated as one of the Greek philosophers more interested in pleasure or its pursuit than other ideals. While at times this led to a negative view of his philosophy, the reality is his thinking was very advanced and developed, leading to his ideas becoming highly influential in modern thought in many regions of the world today. He was one of the first Greek philosophers to develop a strong tradition that avoid superstition as a core ideal. His simple philosophy of avoiding pain, leading a simple life, and attaining knowledge have made his philosophy both attractive and influential to many.<br />
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==Background==<br />
[[File:Lucretius,_De_rerum_natura.jpg|thumbnail|250px|left|Poem by Lucretius entitled <i>De rerum natura</i> that explains Epicureanism]] <br />
Relatively few works written by Epicurus (Figure 1) still survive, as most of what we known derive from later writings from his followers and his philosophical school that he started. We know that Epicureanism began as a philosophy at around 307/306 BCE. Like so many other philosophers, he established himself at Athens, although he was from Samos.<ref>For more on Epicurus and his established school, see: Hibler, Richard W. 1984. Happiness through Tranquillity: The School of Epicurus. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.</ref> He was influenced by the teaching of Democritus and he studied under Nausiphanes of Teos, but had a later falling out as he pursued his own new school of thought. In fact, Epicurus main problem with other philosophers was he felt they were too narrow in their beliefs and their schools did not allow freedom of expression or questioning of the main philosopher teachers. Epicurus' strong ego, in essence, led to rifts with other schools of thought, forcing him to create his own school. This ultimately, however, did give him freedom to develop his ideas, which emerged over a number of years and likely evolved before coming to a mature state.<ref>For more on how Epicurus' philosophy evolved, see: DeWitt, Norman Wentworth. 1954. Epicurus and His Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pg. 27.</ref><br />
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The core philosophy we know Epicurus to have believed in was that one should pursue simple pleasures in life. Friendship was also key to forming happiness.<ref>For more on the foundations of Epicurus' philosophy, see: Bales, Eugene F. 2008. Philosophy in the West: Men, Women, Religion, Science. Philadelphia, Pa.: Xlibris, pg. 68.</ref> While his falling out with other philosophers may seem a slight contradiction in his beliefs of seeking friendship and pleasure, he did try to live up to his ideals. This is demonstrated when he claimed to a friend in a letter, as he was dying, that his state of mind was very happy despite the pain he felt from kidney stones. So, even if physically one cannot escape pain, mentally one can pursue happiness such that it becomes a state not bound by death or sickness. His ideas, therefore, differ greatly from modern understanding of hedonism, which is often associated with the pursuit of please at all costs. While many focus on his ideas of pleasure, it is also his scientific ideas that, along with those of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, have greatly influenced our modern world. <br />
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During the lifetime of Epicurus, he had relatively few followers and they would meet at his house's garden. In fact, the garden in his house becomes the name in which they associated their school. However, evidence of his enduring philosophy in the centuries that followed are evident, as when the Apostle Paul went to Athens he encountered followers of Epicureanism, demonstrating the success of the philosophy as it began to develop.<ref>For more on how Epicureanism developed during and after Epicurus, see: O’Keefe, Tim. 2010. Epicureanism. Ancient Philosophies 7. Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> Nevertheless, because later thought began to confound Epicureanism with hedonism and other philosophies of pleasure seeking, many of Epicurus' ideas were frowned upon and became less acceptable. It was only in the Renaissance that his ideas once again blossomed.<br />
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==Epicureanism==<br />
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Because Epicurus' ideas have been misunderstood, it is important to delineate the key ideas he developed and what he intended by them. His core ideals can be described as atomistic materialism, which held that all things are made up of atoms and that voids separated these atoms.<ref>For more on atomistic materialism, see: O’Connor, Daniel John. 1964. A Critical History of Western Philosophy. New York etc.; London: The Free press etc. ; Collier Macmillan, pg. 127. </ref>. Atoms themselves are made up of a few basic types, which together can be combined to make all things present in the universe. Because gods do not control pain or pleasure, and that they are likely unable to or uninterested in causing pain or pleasure to people, one should, therefore, pursue pleasure as a key goal in life. <br />
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The Epicureans did believe in the existence of the gods, but did not see them as central to living or being happy, which made them different from many other philosophers. However, the danger that Epicurus realized is that this pursuit can lead to indulgence that then leads back to pain. While satisfying oneself may seem harmless enough, it's pursuit could become an obsession that leads to pain. Therefore, moderation is key so that one does not become over zealous, or essentially addicted, to the pursuit of pleasure where they are unable to function and pursue a balanced life. <br />
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Interest in simple pleasures is key, as interest in goals such as conquest or wealth could potentially lead to ruin. Minimizing pain and suffering are critical to maximize pleasure. It is also not the pursuits of lusts or desires so much but it is seeking knowledge, developing good friendships, and banishing ideas that bring difficulty and problems to our lives is how one attains pleasure. The tranquility of the mind is what Epicurus would see as the greatest pleasure. He stated that one should never fear death, as death simply means the end of what one can feel and not something that would be painful. Epicurus also warned against being involved in politics, as that also could lead to the diminishment of happiness, something that Epicurus noticed in his own lifetime during the tumultuous politics of Athens after the death of Alexander the Great.<ref>For details of what pleasure means in the Epicurus' philosophy, see: Johnston, Derek. 2006. A Brief History of Philosophy: From Socrates to Derrida. London ; New York: Continuum.</ref><br />
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==Key Influences on Our World==<br />
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The impacts of the philosophy are many and Epicurus held a variety of thoughts that have turned out to at least have at least some truth, despite his inability to fully observe them. For instance, his ideas that the universe is infinite are more realistic than philosophers who had a very narrow idea of where the universe and its extent can be found.<ref>For more on Epicurus' ideas of the universe, see: DeWitt, Norman Wentworth. 1954. St. Paul and Epicurus. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pg. 13.</ref> He also believed no truth should be accepted as given without some form of proof, an idea that is now foundational to modern science. <br />
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His belief that life and all matters must have basic building blocks are akin to our modern concept of atoms that was only proven in the 19th century. A key development that Epicurus indicated in his writings is the concept of divorcing the pursuit of knowledge from religious pursuits, something that became popular by the Renaissance, as thinkers from that era began to realize the importance of separating their work from religious zeal that may have hindered some advances in knowledge.<ref>For more on Epicurus' influence on later thinkers and scientists, see: Wyatt, Michael, ed. 2014. The Cambridge Companion to the Italian Renaissance. Cambridge Companions to Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 272.</ref> A key example is Galileo’s advocacy that the Earth was not the center of the universe, whereas the Catholic church at the time held the belief the Earth was the center of the universe. <br />
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While Epicurus’ ideas in science proved to be influential to later generations and modern science, his philosophy on happiness underwent different understanding in various periods. Although his teachings on happiness were often conflated with later understanding of hedonism, later thinkers began to see the practicality of his philosophy on pleasure as one that avoids pain and pursues simple pleasures as it avoids indulgence. Some impacts of this philosophy include what is now called ethical hedonism, where measured pleasure is taught and pursued as part of mental health treatment to addiction and other problems faced by patients.<ref>For more on ethical hedonism, see: Ford, Gary George. 2006. Ethical Reasoning for Mental Health Professionals. Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE Publications, pg. 54. </ref> In effect, the Epicurean philosophy is still alive and well in our society and not in a way that simply advocates unbridled pursuit of pleasure.<br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
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Epicurus has been a misunderstood philosopher, yet his influence has been profound and can be considered one of the founders of modern philosophy. His ideas continue to influence our world and then longevity of his thinking shows that it held influence through many major shifts in history. In many respects, Epicurus was ahead of his time, as he understood life composed of basic building blocks that simply can be reconfigured to make different things. This, to some extent, is true, while his philosophy of avoiding harmful things and pursue simple pursuits that give pleasure, such as friendship, are sensible and many would likely agree with these ideas. <br />
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{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=What_was_Plato%27s_academy_and_why_did_it_influence_Western_thought&diff=13736What was Plato's academy and why did it influence Western thought2018-11-22T21:17:25Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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[[File:Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Plato made be Silanion in 370 BC for Academy of Athens]]<br />
The Academy, founded by the philosopher Plato in the early 4th century BCE, was perhaps one of the earliest institutions of higher learning. While it was not like a university where people would enroll and obtain advanced degrees, it functioned as one of the first places for dedicated research into scientific and philosophical questions, at least in Europe, took place by gathered scholars. Its main function was to teach Plato's philosophical understanding, but it also challenged its scholars to develop a new understanding of our universe. This makes it one of the first known institutions that dedicated itself to fundamental discovery about our universe. <br />
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==The Establishment of the Academy==<br />
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Plato founded the Academy sometime between 390-380 BCE in Athens. Fundamentally, the school served as a place where Plato's philosophies would be taught.<ref>For more on the founding of the Academy, see: Press, Gerald A. 2007. Plato: A Guide for the Perplexed. Guides for the Perplexed. London ; New York: Continuum.</ref> The Academy was initially located in area that was a grove or garden of olive trees that included statues and nearby buildings. The term academy derives from Academus or Hecademus, a mythical hero the garden was dedicated to. This term becomes both the term for Plato's school but also our word for academy and academic. <br />
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The idea of the Academy was to have an institution where dedicated scholars would meet, discuss, and lecture about the nature of the universe.<ref>For a history on the Academy, see: Reale, Giovanni, John R. Catan, and Giovanni Reale. 1990. Plato and Aristotle. A History of Ancient Philosophy, Giovanni Reale ; 2. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press.</ref> Plato believed that knowledge was not attained by only contemplation but through discussion, teaching, and research. Plato initially gave many of the lectures and seminars, where he would also field questions from his select audience of scholars. The subjects focused upon were mathematics, natural science, astronomy, dialectics, philosophy, and politics. Plato was joined by other well known philosophers at the academy, including Aristotle before he founded his own Academy after he had a falling out with Palto's philosophies. While initially the academy functioned as a school that taught Plato's philosophies about the natural world, this changed by the mid-3rd century BCE.<br />
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==Continuity of the Academy==<br />
[[File:Plato Academy MAN Napoli Inv124545.jpg|thumbnail|The Academy as depicted in a mosaic.]]<br />
In around 266 BCE, Arcesilaus became the Scholarch or head of the Academy.<ref>For more on Arcesilaus, see: Algra, Keimpe, ed. 2005. The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. 1st pbk. ed. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, pg. 324. </ref> He developed what became known as the Skeptical school of Platonism. This period saw influences by the Skeptics and Stoics on many philosophical ideas, although both were criticized by the Platonist skeptics. Skepticism saw that the universe was unknowable and it was folly to pursue it. Arcesilaus, on the other hand, taught that skepticism should be measured with degrees of probability. While it might be true that certain things are unknowable, one can pursue knowledge such that a degree of probability could be ascribed. This, therefore, makes the pursuit of knowledge worthwhile since it allows us to know more and some degree of knowledge about any given topic, although we may not fully attained total knowledge about a topic. Having an agnostic attitude towards knowledge were central to the new philosophy.<br />
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In the era of the so-called "New Academy," the school continued to be dedicated to Platonic Skepticism. However, the philosopher Carneades took over at around 159 BCE.<ref>For more on Carneades' philosophies, see: Furley, David J., ed. 1999. From Aristotle to Augustine. Routledge History of Philosophy, v. 2. London ; New York: Routledge, pg. 271. </ref> Although he maintained the Skeptical philosophy, in that he asserted knowledge was not fully knowable, he asserted there are greater degrees of likelihood. He asserted that one has to live and to live means we need to have guiding principals. Those principals should be led by knowledge that is most likely to be true, even if we are never certain. Therefore, one should pursue knowledge so that we have the greatest amount of understanding of a subject's likelihood, even while we acknowledge that we cannot fully understand the topic and must have a degree of agnostic attitude. This philosophy was slightly more liberal than Arcesilaus' beliefs, in that it tried to ascribe more certainty in knowledge.<br />
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The Skepticism philosophy continued to have a strong influence on the Platonic school until 90 BCE, when Antiochus of Ascalon began to lead the school.<ref>For more on Antiochus and his philosophies, see: Sedley, D. N., ed. 2012. The Philosophy of Antiochus. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref> By this point, the Stoic influences began to have more of an influence on the school. Antiochus' main belief was that the mind can distinguish truth from falsehood. He believed the grounds for knowledge, its moral and understanding, needs to be examined and seeking truth were critical and the essence of our being. In many respects, Antiochus believed he was reviving the Old Academy that had been established by Plato's initial ideas. Antiochus' thoughts become influential and he became one of Cicero's chief teachers and influences.<br />
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==Destruction and Reconstitution==<br />
[[File:Athens_Plato_Academy_Archaeological_Site_3.jpg|thumbnail|350px|Archaeological Remains of Plato's Academy in Athens]]<br />
In 86 BCE, the school itself was destroyed in a fire that likely occurred during the siege of Athens. The Academy proved impossible to reconstruct; however, teaching resumed in Athens by 84 BCE in a gymnasium called Ptolemy. The teachings continued to thrive in the Roman Era, as Roman officials and others were even influenced by its teaching. By the 5th century CE, there was now an movement to reestablish the Academy itself. The Neoplatonists, as they were called, established the new Academy by 400-410 CE.<ref>For more on the Neoplatonists, see: Gregory, John. 1999. The Neoplatonists: A Reader. 2nd ed. London ; New York: Routledge.</ref> The Neoplatonists believed they were reviving Plato's original ideas; however, they were now influenced themselves by a wide variety of ideas, indicating that there philosophy was not just one central theme. Common beliefs of this new philosophy were that the soul or person was a microcosm of the universe and that this microcosm should strive to making the divine and natural world work better. There are a series of rituals that one goes through that help create a core dedicated to a pure and ethical life that then brings us closer to the divine nature of our existence. The One is seen as the divine source where we must strive to achieve understanding and unity with this source. Many of these ideas were influenced by Eastern mysticism, which blended with emerging concepts of a unified and single universe. This philosophy later becomes very influential in the Medieval period as it gets merged with Christian thinkers and philosophers. Others within this school, however, did not ascribe to all of this or even much of this philosophy, so it is somewhat doubtful that the Neoplatonists were actually one unified school of thought. <br />
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Nevertheless, the presence of the Neoplatonists revived the academy until the reign of Justinian I, who closed all philosophical schools in 529 CE.<ref>For more on Justianian philosophical school closures, see: Adamson, Peter, and Peter Adamson. 2014. Classical Philosophy. First edition. A History of Philosophy without Any Gaps, Peter Adamson ; Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pg. 259. </ref> Justinian believed the philosophical schools, which had their origins in the polytheistic past, were heretical and, therefore, must be closed. The philosophies of Platonism, however, did survive in the East, as the Eastern Christians adopted many of the philosopher refugees that left the Byzantine Empire during the closure of the philosophical schools. This eventually led these schools to once again influence the West through the later Medieval period, when some of the philosophies began to merge with Christian thought through a reexamination of the old Classical works.<br />
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==Legacy of the Academy==<br />
The legacy of the Academy was through the fact it was the first known place where scholars could gather, debate, discuss, and teach about the universe and its understanding.<ref>For more on the legacy of the Academy, see: Power, Edward J. 1991. A Legacy of Learning: A History of Western Education. SUNY Series, the Philosophy of Education. Albany, N.Y: State University of New York Press, pg. 29.</ref> The concept of higher learning was a new idea when the Academy was established. This is why ultimately the word academy is adopted in our own vocabulary. During the Renaissance, a revival of interest in Greek philosophies in general led many to reexamine the old texts and teachings of the Greek philosophers and the academy. Some of the philosophies, such as Neoplatonism, also influenced Christian and later thought. The concepts of the academy began to influence the developing notion of science and philosophy in the West in the late Medieval period. This led to the eventual establishment of new or modern academies and influenced the development of universities in later periods. Although the Academy itself went through different philosophical leanings, the concept of gathering scholars to debate, teach, and learn became a profound influence on Western ideas of creating institutions of higher learning and knowledge.<br />
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==References==<br />
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{{mediawiki:Ancient Greece}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_Versailles_Treaty_lead_to_World_War_Two&diff=13737How did the Versailles Treaty lead to World War Two2018-11-22T21:17:25Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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<div>[[File:LLoyd's_News_Placard_announcing_Versailles_signing.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Lloyd's News reporting the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919.]]__NOTOC__<br />
The guns fell silent on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. Over four years of incredible destruction came to a silent end. For the belligerent Central and Allied Powers the armistice brought uncertainty. The Kaiser had just been overthrown and a new alliance of Liberals and Socialists announced a democratic regime at Weimar, Germany. The other Central Powers had collapsed in disarray and revolution. Russia, out of the war in early 1918 was in the midst of a deepening Civil War. Many of the Allies were exhausted and drained.<br />
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The delegates that crafted the treaty that ended the First World War believed that they had brought a lasting peace to Europe. President Wilson believed that the war had made much of the world safe for democracy to spread. However, conflicting goals, the harsh terms of the treaty and Germany’s response to those terms would lead to the most destructive conflict in world history - World War Two.<br />
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====Deliberations====<br />
[[File:Versailles_1919.jpg|thumbnail|250px|left|Georges Clemenceau and Woodrow Wilson at the Formal Signing of the Treaty.]]<br />
The delegates of the victorious powers met in Paris to discuss the terms of the peace, followed by the treaty's signing at the former French royal palace of Versailles. Led by the "Big Four," the U.S., France, Italy, and Great Britain. Each had their own goals and vulnerabilities. While the U.S. President Wilson adhered to an idealistic view of collective responsibility and ethnic self-determination, France was driven largely by one thing: revenge. France sought to avenge its humiliating loss almost fifty years earlier in the Franco-Prussian War that resulted in a united Germany. <br />
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Generations of French policy had been consumed by this idea of revanchism and a clear opportunity finally presented itself. France demanded terms that would have completely de-industrialized and demilitarized Germany. The French floated proposals that included breaking up Germany proper and creating a client state in the industrial Rhineland. France demanded harsh reparations for the damage done to its country and Belgium during the conflict. This would materialize in over $31 billion in reparations Germany was forced to pay in the treaty terms. <ref>Roekmeke, Feldman, and Glaser, Editors. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0521621321/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0521621321&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=23707e21c609bf040f6ea201065827fb The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years]</i>, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Page 90.</ref><br />
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====Shortfalls====<br />
Each of the powers represented at the treaty conference came out with some disappointments, to say the least. The British goal of stability was largely subverted by revolutions across Europe and France's demand for increasing punishment for Germany. Italy did not receive territory promised in secret deliberations during the war. The largest shortfalls appeared for France and the United States.<br />
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President Wilson's lofty goals of internationalism fell asunder in the postwar reality. The emerging League of Nations lacked the teeth needed to actually prevent an aggressive power from emerging and destroying the fragile peace. Rather than creating a series of independent democracies across Eastern Europe and the Middle East, conflict raged for years, leading to opportunities for Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia. Furthermore, the United States never signed the Treaty of Versailles and joined the League. The U.S. Senate never ratified the Treaty, destroying Wilson's grand vision. <ref>Graebner, Norman and Bennett, Edward. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1107647487/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1107647487&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=c74d9defaf3a45523aa17dfc019a9d1c The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision]</i>, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pages 86-87)</ref><br />
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However, it was France that had the largest impact. France's incessant desire for revenge alienated its allies and sparked radical political movements in Germany. The French understood that the country was completely drained by the war, losing almost half of its youngest adult male generation. Paris developed a decidedly defensive posture, seeking various ways to box in and humiliate Germany. France created alliances with many of the new Eastern European states, none of which would adequately function. France also created a long line of defenses along the new Franco-German border. This Maginot Line proved to be less than up to the task in 1940, despite substantial effort and investment.<br />
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====German Reaction====<br />
[[File:Mass_demonstration_in_front_of_the_Reichstag_against_the_Treaty_of_Versailles.jpg|thumbnail|400px|Mass Demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles at the Reichstag in 1919.]] <br />
Naturally, Germany was less than thrilled about their situation. By November 1918 nary a square mile was under Allied occupation and the Kaiser's troops still occupied a substantial part of Belgium. German propaganda had been announcing for months that their soldiers were very close to victory through much of 1918. And in many ways, they had been. The shock of defeat coupled with the harsh terms proposed carved an indelible mark in the German psyche. This led to the famous "stab in the back" theory that was so utilized by Hitler. The sight of American, British, French, and Belgian occupying the Rhineland pierced the brief calm after the fighting ended.<br />
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Furthermore, Germany's acceptance of Article 231, commonly referred to as the War Guilt Clause was for many the final straw. Germany had to accept the full responsibility for the war, including the actions of its allies. This came with a heavy price. Across its territory, various portions were carved off or plebiscites prepared. Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. France gained Alsace-Lorraine and its resources and industry lost in the Franco-Prussian War. France also occupied the Saarland, also rich in coal. Votes were held in other regions, with Denmark regaining territory lost to Prussia in the 19th Century and Poland gaining territory in both Prussia and Silesia. Perhaps most insulting was the Allied requirement that Poland have access to the sea, creating a strip that divided Germany in two. The predominately German-speaking city of Danzig became a free city. <ref>Roekmeke, ''Reassessment'', Page 45.</ref><br />
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Germany's military was almost disarmed. German troops were not allowed in the Rhineland, Germany's main industrial region that bordered France. Furthermore, the Reichswehr was limited to just 100,000 soldiers. The air force was banned from having combat aircraft and the German navy lost nearly all of its surface ships and all of its submarines. Tanks were forbidden. What had been arguably the strongest army in the world was humiliated for a second time. <ref>Sharp, Alan. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/033380077X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=033380077X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=3c0f73cc4aacf358986394a403a79bed The Versailles Settlement]</i> (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, Second Edition, 2008. Page 132-133.</ref><br />
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Versailles hung heavily on the German consciousness immediately. Various political parties, especially on the emerging far right desperately campaigned against the terms. Furthermore, armed militias, often called the Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets) organized across the country burnished by Great War veterans and armaments. These militia helped lead to further undermine the unstable Weimar government, already accused by many on the right of being born on the corpse of the empire. A bizarre combination of new political party combined with militias led to emerging Communist and National Socialist conflict.<br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
Rather than foster long term peace and stability, the Versailles Treaty's main goal of handling Germany instead sparked movements that would lead directly into World War II. The National Socialist Party would use widespread anger about Versailles with the economic collapse of the Great Depression to come to power in 1933. Six years later the world was again at war, this time far more destructive and incorporating widespread genocide. The inability for Wilson's ideals to come to widespread fruition led to further devolving situations in Eastern Europe and Asia also allowed for Soviet and Japanese expansionism. Far from preventing another war, in many ways Versailles instead caused another one.<br />
<br />
====Suggested Readings====<br />
* Michael S. Neiberg <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0190659181/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0190659181&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=9187758485abe727318e423b124b3f79 The Treaty of Versailles: A Concise History]</i> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017)<br />
* Sharp, Alan. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/033380077X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=033380077X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=3c0f73cc4aacf358986394a403a79bed The Versailles Settlement]</i> (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, Second Edition, 2008)<br />
* Graebner, Norman and Bennett, Edward. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1107647487/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1107647487&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=c74d9defaf3a45523aa17dfc019a9d1c The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision]</i>, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011)<br />
* Roekmeke, Feldman, and Glaser, Editors. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0521621321/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0521621321&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=23707e21c609bf040f6ea201065827fb The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years]</i>, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997)<br />
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{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrechthttps://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_did_the_Boxer_Rebellion_unite_Imperial_Powers_and_create_Chinese_Nationalism&diff=13735How did the Boxer Rebellion unite Imperial Powers and create Chinese Nationalism2018-11-22T21:17:24Z<p>EricLambrecht: insert middle ad</p>
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[[File:Foreign_armies_in_Beijing_during_Boxer_Rebellion_copy.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Foreign Armies in Beijing during Boxer Rebellion]]<br />
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The Boxer Uprising (1899-1901) was a key event in the history of China, as it reflected the colonial powers increasing influence in Chinese affairs and the weakness of late 19th century China.<ref>For an overview of this period, see: Preston, Diana, and Diana Preston. 2001. <i>The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic Story of China’s War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900</i>. New York: Berkley Books.</ref> The rebellion consisted of an uprising led by a group known as the Boxers, which culminated in a siege of representatives of the eight colonial powers in Beijing. The rebellion began in the Shandong province of China before leading to Beijing and spreading throughout much of the northern countryside, with many foreigners and converted Chinese Christians attacked. The Boxers were mostly peasants who performed a type of shaman act that has come down through Western interpretation as a sort of boxing, giving rise to the term Boxers. <ref>For a discussion on shamanism and its role in the rebellion see: Esherick, Joseph W. 1987. <i>The Origins of the Boxer Uprising</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press, Pg. 5-7, 39.</ref> While it is often believed the Boxers were not supported by or were against the main Chinese court and government at the time, the fact is once the uprising was underway it was indeed supported by the Qing Dynasty and its army.<br />
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The origins of the conflict can be traced to increased foreign presence in China, particularly by Great Britain, the United States, Russia, Germany, France, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and eventually Japan. <ref>For an overview of increased foreign presence in the 19th century see: Duara, Prasenjit. 1995. <i>Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Pg. 60.</ref> Mass conversion of locals to Christianity and seizure of property and areas led to increase resentment, while the local population was very poor and the region densely populated. A drought and failed harvest in the great northern plain in Shandong then proved to be the final spark after a period of increased violence against foreigners and Chinese Christians that then that led to the outward expression of anger and mass mobilization.<ref> Esherick, Joseph W. 1987. <i>The Origins of the Boxer Uprising</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press, Pg. 300.</ref> Just 14 years before the Great War, this event also proved to be one of the last instances that all of the great powers of the day were united. <br />
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==Foreign Interests in China==<br />
Western foreigners in China, after the arrival of Marco Polo in the 13th century, began to see China as a place for economic opportunity and for mass conversion to Christianity. In the 19th century, it was mainly Britain and its powerful navy that began to increase its presence in China and control of trade in the region.<ref>For an overview of how trade and drugs in particular fueled British interaction and ultimately increased interest in China see: Lovell, Julia. 2011. <i>Ya Pian Zhan Zheng = The Opium War: Drugs, Dreams and the Making of China</i>. London: Picador.</ref> One particular commodity of interest was opium, which became a product of increased demand in the West in the early to mid 19th century. Two main wars were fought over access to opium, which China had fought to restrict in trade, with the British, assisted by the French and United States in the second war, successfully defeating the Chinese in both wars. The Second Opium War (1856-1860), as it was called, was the most critical, as it was the key war that led to the opening of China to many countries, traders, and missionaries. The presence became affiliated with legations and it allowed the British, French, the United States, and Russia bases of operations and great access to China, including in Beijing and key port cities. This began a period of rapid increase in Western influence in China, which was increasingly seen by many Chinese as largely favoring Western interests and against their own.<ref>See Chow, Gregory C. 2007. <i>Knowing China</i>. New Jersey ;London: World Scientific.</ref><br />
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==Competition Among Major Powers==<br />
The late 19th century was also a period of intense industrialization and competition among the Western powers. Initially it was Germany, France, Britain, and Russia, but soon the United States, that began to play an increasing role in foreign affairs.<ref>or a discussion on 19th century political competition see: Held, David, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt, and Jonathan Perraton, eds. 2002. <i>Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture</i>. Stanford, Calif: Stanford Univ. Press, Pg. 43.</ref> Throughout much of the late 1800s, a weak Qing Dynasty that technically ruled China characterized the political power in China, but foreigners consistently took possessions within China or did as they please when it came to building or seizing land needed for their trade and bases. While foreign powers competed with each other throughout much of the world in the 19th century, China held mutual interests as the largely one-way trade was benefiting all the imperial powers collectively.<ref>See the discussion in Chapter 3 regarding the great powers in China before the Boxer Rebellion: Silbey, David. 2012. <i>The Boxer Rebellion and the Great Game in China</i>. New York: Hill and Wang.</ref><br />
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==Collaboration in the Rebellion==<br />
[[File: 1200px-Beijing Castle Boxer Rebellion 1900 FINAL.jpg |left|thumbnail|Foreign Armies attack Beijing Palace during Boxer Rebellion]]<br />
Similar to what happened in the Second Opium war, the Boxer Rebellion created a situation where a mass uprising forced all the great powers with concessions in China to collaborate, as each one was to limit in resources to tackle the rebellion effectively. One great irony was by 1900 there was already great tension between the Western powers. Germany, or more specifically Prussia, and France had fought a bitter war in 1870-1871, Germany was seen as the rising rival to Great Britain, the Russo-Japanese War was only 4 years away at this point, although Great Britain began to draw more closely with the United States. <ref>For a discussion on Anglo-US relations in the late 19th century see: Ellis, Sylvia. 2009. <i>Historical Dictionary of Anglo-American Relations. Historical Dictionaries of U.S. Diplomacy 10</i>. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press.</ref> <br />
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However, the mass uprising in the Box Rebellion was swift and was very popular among the vast peasantry. This put immediate pressure on the Western powers to suppress the rebellion before all of them would lose their foothold in China. The rebellion forced the Qing Dynasty to largely support the uprising, even if members of the Qing court held reservations given their bitter defeats in the Opium wars.<ref>Esherick, Joseph W. 1987. <i>The Origins of the Boxer Uprising</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press, pg. xiv.</ref> With the arrival of foreign troops and reinforcements, with a large Japanese presence in particular, to Beijing, the Boxers were ultimately defeated by 1901. While the unity caused by the rebellion proved to be short-lived, as the rivalries between the great powers soon reemerged and ultimately led to World War I, for China there were long-term changes that have made these events of great interest to this day.<br />
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==Boxer Rebellion United Chinese Against the Imperial Powers==<br />
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The Boxers remained controversial figures in China. Some Chinese historians and individuals see the Boxers as largely ignorant peasants who were misguided and xenophobic. On the other hand, China experienced a wave of nationalism in the early 20th century that paved the way for the transition between the last royal dynasty and modern China. This nationalism had seen the Boxers as being Chinese nationalists who were standing up to for their cause and fighting an aggressive foreign occupation. <ref>Purcell, Victor. 2010. <i>The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 271.</ref> In the decades that followed the Boxer Rebellion, Chinese anti-imperialists and nationals began to use the Boxer Rebellion as a rallying cry that helped to bring about political change within China. <br />
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The Boxer Rebellion also exposed divisions within China, namely those who looked to the West and those who aspired for nationalism. China descended into a chaotic period after 1911-1912, when the last emperor of China abdicated, with warlords and factionalism replacing various parts of China. Soon, the influence of Communism began to affect China and the Chinese Civil War (1927-1950) was in part shaped by the events of the Boxer Rebellion. <ref>For an overview of key events that shaped China from 1911 to the Chinese Civil War see: Clubb, Edmund. 1964. <i>20th Century China</i>. New York, N.Y.; Columbia University Press.</ref> Resentment to the West, including what was seen as Western Capitalism, lingered in many areas and many peasants and young intellectuals had joined the Communist party which was seen as a cure for China’s ills brought about by the Western encroachment initially and then the collapse of the state all together in 1911-12.<ref>Sheel, Kamal. 1989. <i>Peasant Society and Marxist Intellectuals in China: Fang Zhimin and the Origin of a Revolutionary Movement in the Xinjiang Region</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</ref><br />
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==Conclusion==<br />
We can conclude that in many ways the Boxer Rebellion was seen as a Western victory that allowed the great powers to continue their trade and political policies in China; however, as is often the case, the events had more of an impact on local populations. Resentment to the West continued for decades and may have ultimately pushed a large number of peasants and some urban intellectuals to take up the Communist cause in the Chinese Civil War.<br />
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==References==<br />
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[[Category:Wikis]]<br />
[[Category:Chinese History]] [[Category:19th Century History]] [[Category:Imperialism]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:Asian History]]<br />
{{Contributors}}</div>EricLambrecht