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==Introduction==The Third Century Crisis in the 2nd century AD was a series of military, social, and political crises that almost destroyed the Roman Empire<youtube>https://www. For some fifty years (235-285 AD), one of the world’s greatest Empire’s and one of the most influential state’s in history was stricken by military revolts, barbarian invasions, economic collapse, plague, and political divisionsyoutube. For many years it seemed that the Roman Empire would fragment and collapse. However, a series of military Emperors managed to save the state and allowed it to continue to exist in the west for almost two hundred years and in the east for another thousand years. The origins of the Third Century Crisis is complex. It will be argued that the crisis was a result of, a breakdown in army discipline, barbarian invasions, the rise of the Sassanian Empire, and natural disasters. [[File: Third Century AD one.jpg |200px|thumb|left| Bust of Emperor Alexander Severus]]com/watch?v=LTqmIFEx72E</youtube>

==The Background==In 200 __NOTOC__[[File: Third Century AD the Roman Empire was at its greatest extent since the reign of Trajanone. It was governed by a strong jpg |200px|thumb|left| Bust of Emperor, Septimius Alexander Severus. ]]The Empire seemed invincible and it had overawed Third Century Crisis in the German and Iranian tribes on its Rhine and Danuban frontiers <ref>Hekster2nd century AD was a series of military, social, Oliver. Rome and its political crises that almost destroyed the Roman Empire, AD 193–284 . For some fifty years (Edinburgh 2008235-285 AD), p 119</ref>. The Parthian Empire, once Rome’s one of the world’s greatest Empire’s and one of the most formidable enemy influential state’s in the east history was no longer a serious threatstricken by military revolts, barbarian invasions, economic collapse, plague, and political divisions. The local elites in For many years it seemed that the Roman Empire had become Romanized would fragment and were very loyal to Romecollapse.  However, beneath the surface, the state had been undermined by a series of problems. Inflation as a result of military Emperors managed to save the debasing of state and allowed it to continue to exist in the currency was causing persistent economic problems <ref>Heckster, p 127</ref>. Moreover, west for almost two hundred years and in the plague east for another thousand years. The origins of the Third Century Crisis is complex. It will be argued that had ravaged Rome and its provinces in the 160s had led to crisis was a result of a dramatic drop breakdown in army discipline, barbarian invasions, the population rise of the Sassanian Empire, and this was to have long-term consequences for the Imperial territoriesnatural disasters. After == How did the death of 3rd Century Crisis Begin? ==In 200 AD, the Roman Empire was at its greatest extent since Trajan's reign, and a strong Emperor , Septimius Severus his sons Geta and Caracalla ruled as co-Emperors, governed it. Caracalla murdered his brother The Empire seemed invincible, and became sole ruler it had overawed the German and according to Gibbon he ‘was the common enemy of mankind’ Iranian tribes on its Rhine and Danuban frontiers.<ref>GibbonHekster, Decline Oliver. Rome and Fall of the Roman its Empire, chapter 6AD 193–284 (Edinburgh 2008), p 119</ref>. After Caracalla was assassinatedThe Parthian Empire, once Rome’s most formidable enemy in 217 ADthe east, he was succeeded by an alleged relative Elagabalus, no longer a former priest in a sun-cult serious threat. The local elites in Syria. The sources are all hostile to Elagabalus who it is said tried the Empire had become Romanized and were very loyal to impose his religion on Rome and who may have .  However, beneath the surface, the state had been undermined by a transsexual <ref>, Gibbon, William, The Decline and Fall series of the Roman Empire Iproblems. Inflation, as a result of the debasing of the currency, was causing persistent economic issues.<ref>Heckster, Chp 6p 127</ref>. When he Moreover, the plague that had ravaged Rome and its provinces in the 160s had led to a dramatic drop in the population, and this was assassinated (222 AD) he was succeeded by his nephew Alexander to have long-term consequences for the Imperial territories.  After the death of Emperor Severus, who was a benign ruler who was prepared to cooperate with his sons Geta and Caracalla ruled as co-Emperors. Caracalla murdered his brother and became sole ruler and according to Gibbon he ‘was the Senatecommon enemy of mankind. However, he too was assassinated’<ref>Gibbon, Edward, <i>Decline and his death is widely seen as the start Fall of the Third Century Crisis Roman Empire<ref/i>Hekster, p 198chapter 6</ref>.==The Third Century Crisis==Alexander Severus had been After Caracalla was assassinated because , in 217 AD, he tried to buy off German invaders and the army was repelled succeeded by this and Macrinus the Praetorian Prefect became Emperor an alleged relative Elagabalus, a former priest in a sun-cult in 235 ADSyria. The military situation on the Rhine sources are all hostile to Elagabalus, who tried to impose his religion on Rome and the Danube was very serious as more and more German tribes invaded Roman provincesbe transgender. In 238 AD Macrinus <ref>Gibbon, I, Chp 6</ref> When he was deposed in a coup and five more Emperors ascended the throne before they too were assassinated(222 AD), all in he was succeeded by his nephew Alexander Severus, who was a benign ruler who was prepared to cooperate with the space of 12 months<ref>WatsonSenate. However, Alaric Aurelian and the he too was assassinated, and his death is widely seen as the start of the Third Century (Taylor & Francis, 2004)Crisis.<ref>Hekster, p 134198</ref>. The Empire was battled over by a series of military adventurers or warlords, who would temporarily gain  == What were the throne before being assassinated. There was no central government and problems that led to the army Roman Empire's Third Century Crisis? ==Alexander Severus had become fractured been assassinated because he tried to buy off German invaders and instead of battling the many barbarians they would engage army was repelled by this and Macrinus the Praetorian Prefect became Emperor in countless civil wars235 AD. This greatly weakened The military situation on the once mighty Roman legions Rhine and placed a considerable burden on the citizenrythe Danube was dire as more and more German tribes invaded Roman provinces. MoreoverIn 238 AD, Macrinus was deposed in a coup. Five more Emperors ascended the Praetorian Guard throne before they too were assassinated, all in the bodyguards space of the Emperor often assassinate their master, out of political expediency or sheer greed12 months. For a brief period<ref>Watson, Emperor Philip managed to stabilize <i>Alaric Aurelian and the situation. HoweverThird Century</i> (Taylor & Francis, his assassination marked a new and even darker period in the crisis. Decius succeeded Phillip and he had to deal with 2004), p 134</ref>  The Empire was dominated by a Gothic invasion. He was defeated and killed at series of military adventurers or warlords, who temporarily gained the Battle of Abrittus (251 AD)throne before being assassinated. Every year there There was a series no central government and the army had become fractured and instead of barbarian invasions, which battling the many barbarians they would ravage entire provincesengage in countless civil wars. To compound This greatly weakened the situation the Parthians in once-mighty Roman legions and placed a considerable burden on the east were replaced by citizenry.  Moreover, the Sassanian Empire. They were to prove to be even more formidable enemies Praetorian Guard, the bodyguards of Rome. The Sassanian monarch defeated several Roman armies and even captured the Emperor Valerian and his entire army. The apparent failure , often assassinated their rulers, out of the Roman government and army political expediency or sheer greed. For a brief period, Emperor Philip managed to defend stabilize the provinces lead to growing separatism situation. However, his assassination marked a new and even darker period in the provinces crisis. Decius succeeded Phillip, and this led he had to deal with a Gothic invasion. He was defeated and killed at the fragmentation Battle of the EmpireAbrittus (251 AD). By 268Every year there was a series of barbarian invasions, the empire had split into rival stateswhich would ravage entire provinces. Much of western Europe was part of To compound the Gallic Empire. In the eastsituation, the great city of Palmyra under Odaenathus had driven back Parthians in the Persians and created east were replaced by the so-called Palmyrene Empire, which was later ruled by the legendary Queen Zenobia <ref>, Pat SouthernSassanian Empire. They were to prove to be even more formidable enemies of Rome. Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen (London, Continuum, 2008), p The Sassanian monarch defeated several Roman armies and even captured Emperor Valerian and his entire army. 133 </ref>. Furthermore, parts The apparent failure of Dacia the Roman government and army to defend the Rhine provinces were occupied by German tribes. No part lead to growing separatism in the provinces, and this led to the fragmentation of the Empire was safe from raiders and even Athens was besieged by Gothic pirates. During  By 268, the many wars and invasions, pan-Mediterranean trade empire had split into rival states. Much of western Europe was severely curtailedpart of the Gallic Empire. Hyper-inflation became In the norm. Agriculture was disruptedeast, and food shortages were common and another eruption the great city of Palmyra under Odaenathus had driven back the plague devasted many urban centers. However, Persians and created the so-called Palmyrene Empire managed to pull itself back from , which was later ruled by the abyss under a series of military Emperorslegendary Queen Zenobia.<ref>Pat Southern. The Roman army remained very formidable and under several Illyrian EmperorsEmpress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen (London, Continuum, order was restored in the provinces2008), and the frontiers securedp. The recovery began when Claudius II 133 </ref> [[File: 3rd century AD 2.jpg |200px|thumb|left| Emperor Decius who was defeated a Gothic invasion and after he died killed by the Goths]]Furthermore, parts of Dacia and the plague he was succeeded Rhine provinces were occupied by his Master German tribes. No part of Cavalrythe Empire was safe from raiders, Aurelian in 275 ADand Gothic pirates besieged even Athens. He was a brilliant commander During the many wars and he defeated several barbarian invasions. He then went on to defeat , pan-Mediterranean trade was severely curtailed. Hyper-inflation became the Gallic and Palmyrene Empirenorm. HoweverAgriculture was disrupted, instability continued after his assassination and it was only with the accession food shortages were common and another eruption of Diocletian, that the crisis was finally endedplague devasted many urban centers. However, it is widely held that the Third Century Crisis permanently weakened the Empire and it ushered in trends that many see as marking managed to pull itself back from the beginning abyss under a series of the end of the world of Antiquity military Emperors. The Roman army remained very formidable, and marking under several Illyrian Emperors, the transition to order was restored in the Medieval world <ref> Brownprovinces, P, The World of Late Antiquity (W Norton, London, 1971), p. 22 </ref>. and the frontiers secured.  [[File: 3rd century AD 2.jpg |200px|thumb|left| Emperor Decius who was defeated and killed by ==When did the Third Century Crisis of the Goths]] Roman Empire End?==Barbarian Invasions== In The recovery began when Claudius II defeated a Gothic invasion. After he died of the reign of Alexander Severusplague, there he was a sudden rise in the number succeeded by his Master of raids by German Cavalry, Aurelian in 275 AD. He was a brilliant commander and other barbarianshe defeated several barbarian invasions. These raids were a part of life for Rome’s frontier population but by He then went on to defeat the 230sGallic and Palmyrene Empire. Instability continued after Aurelian's assassination, they became more intense and frequent <ref> Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (Londonit was only with Diocletian's accession that the crisis was finally ended.  However, Routledge, 2015), p 356</ref>. German tribes became better organized and formed into confederations such as it is widely held that the Third Century Crisis permanently weakened the FranksEmpire. The emergence It ushered in trends that many see as marking the beginning of the Goths who created a large state in modern Ukraine created a major challenge for end of the Balkan world of Antiquity and Black Sea provinces. They were militarily powerful and were especially proficient in cavalry and even took marking the transition to the sea to launch piratical attacks in the 250 ADMedieval world. <ref> Brown, P, The ferocity World of the barbarian attacks can be attributed to two factorsLate Antiquity (W Norton, London, 1971), p. The Romans were weakened by constant war, especially bloody civil wars and this meant that the legions could not defeat raids and invasions <22 </ref>Heckster == Which Barbarian Invasions weakened Rome? ==In the reign of Alexander Severus, p 113</ref>there was a sudden rise in the number of raids by German and other barbarians. The barbarians These raids were often desperate. Climate change and rising sea levels had impacted on their food supply and a part of life for Rome’s frontier population, but by the 230s, they were forced to raid deeper became more intense and deeper into Imperial Roman territories to secure resources and in hopes of seizing arable landsfrequent.<ref> Southern, Pat. The continuous barbarian invasion thus weakened the Roman Empirefrom Severus to Constantine (London, and this encouraged further raiding by tribal Routledge, 2015), p 356</ref> German tribes became better organized and formed into confederations beyond such as the Rhine and DanubeFranks.  <dh-ad/> ==The Rise emergence of Sassanian Persia==In 224 ADthe Goths, Ardashir, the ruler of Fars who created a large state in modern IranUkraine, defeated and killed created a significant challenge for the last of the Parthian kings Balkan and this is seen as the beginning of the Sassanian EmpireBlack Sea provinces. Its Emperors or ‘King of Kings’ portrayed themselves as They were militarily powerful and were especially proficient in cavalry and even took to the heirs of sea to launch piratical attacks in the Great Persian Empire of Xerxes <ref> Heckster, p 139</ref>250 AD. The barbarian attacks were ferocious for two reasons. It was a much more formidable state that the Parthian and within two decades First, the Sassanians ruled an area much larger than anything governed Romans had been weakened by their predecessorsconstant warfare. The neo-Persian Empire was a centralized state and bloody civil wars had a regular armybeen especially devasting. From the 220s it began raiding The Roman Syria legions could no longer defeat foreign raids and Asia Minor under the capable and ruthless Shapur Iinvasions. The emergence of a new power in <ref>Heckster, p 113</ref>  Second, the east was a very serious challenge for the legionsbarbarians were often desperate. It seemed that the army was overstretched as Climate change and rising sea levels impacted their food supply, and they were forced to fight Germans in Europe raid deeper and Persians in the Near Eastdeeper into Imperial Roman territories. In consequence, They needed to secure resources and seize arable lands to stay alive. The continuous barbarian invasion thus weakened the legions could not defend Empire, and this encouraged further raiding by tribal confederations beyond the frontiersRhine and Danube. This, in turn, led to  == How did the rise Rise of local warlords and ultimately the rise of the Palmyrene Empire, which for a time ruled almost all of the near East and even EgyptSassanian Persia threaten Rome? ==[[File: 3rd century crisis. jpg |200px|thumb|left|The foundation ruins of the Sassanian Empire, under a series Palmyra in present-day Syria 2010]]In 224 AD, Ardashir, the ruler of able rulersFars in modern Iran, was one defeated and killed the last of the most significant factors in Parthian kings and this is seen as the beginning of the Third Century CrisisSassanian Empire. [[File: 3rd century crisis.jpg |200px|thumb|left|alt text]] ==Natural Calamities==The inability Its Emperors or ‘King of Kings’ portrayed themselves as the heirs of the Romans to defend their borders was related to socio-economic factors. A pandemic had decimated Great Persian Empire of Xerxes.<ref> Heckster, p 139</ref> It was a much more formidable state that the Imperial territories in Parthian and within two decades, the 250s and 260s and this led to population declineSassanians ruled an area much larger than anything governed by their predecessors. The plague according to Gibbon, ‘five thousand persons died daily in Rome, neo-Persian Empire was a centralized state and many towns, that had escaped a regular army.  As soon as the hands of the barbarians, were entirely depopulated’ <ref>GibbonSassanians took power, they began raiding Roman Syria and Asia Minor under the capable and ruthless Shapur I, chapter 8</ref>. This had serious repercussions as The emergence of a new force in the east was a grave challenge for the legions. The constant battles with the army found it harder to recruit legionnaires Germans in Europe and Persians in the tax base was much reducedNear East had overstretched the Roman Army. In consequence, the legions could not defend the frontiers. This, in turn, which led to serious economic dislocation. Then as we have seen climate change reduced the yield of agricultural surplus the rise of local warlords and this led to ultimately the near collapse rise of long-distance trade. Then the constant tax demands Palmyrene Empire, which for a time ruled almost all of the Emperors added to the dire situation in many provincesNear East and even Egypt. All Under a series of these compounded able rulers, the difficulties facing Rome and weakened its ability to defend itself against foundation of the Persians and Germans. However, the economic and social decline Sassanian Empire was one of the Empire should not be overstated, as seen in its revival under most significant factors in the Illyrian EmperorsThird Century Crisis. ==The Military AnarchyWhat role did pandemics and climate change in the 3rd Century Crisis? ==The Third Century Crisis is sometimes known as inability of the Romans to defend their borders was related to socio-economic factors. A pandemic had decimated the Imperial territories in the ‘Military Anarchy’ <ref>Scarre, Chris250s and 260s, Chronicle leading to population decline. The plague, according to Gibbon, ‘five thousand persons died daily in Rome, and many towns that had escaped the hands of the Roman Emperors: the reign-by-reign record of the rulers of Imperial Romebarbarians were entirely depopulated.’<ref>Gibbon, (LondonI, Thames & Hudson, 1995), p 198chapter 8</ref>. In other words, This had serious repercussions as the army was not controlled by any unified authorityfound it harder to recruit legionnaires. The different legions sought to tax base was much reduced, which led to serious economic dislocation.  As we have their general become Emperorseen, because climate change reduced the yield of agricultural surplus, which led to the prestige and near-collapse of long-distance trade. Then the monetary rewards that they would secure upon his accession. As a result, constant tax demands of the legions in Emperors added to the Balkans would fight those from the Western dire situation in many provinces in order to determine who should become the ruler of the Roman World. The root cause of These compounded the civil wars difficulties facing Rome and weakened its ability to defend itself against the Persians and Germans. However, the economic and endless usurpations was social decline of the fact that Rome had Empire should not developed a formal succession process even though it was a de-facto monarchy. As a resultbe overstated, any general with an army could intimidate as seen in its revival under the Senate to recognize his right to become Illyrian Emperors. == Why did the Roman Army fall apart during the Third Century? ==The Third Century Crisis is sometimes known as the legitimate Emperor‘Military Anarchy. This led to a profoundly unstable system and for almost fifty years there was rarely a strong government. Because as Gibbon noted ‘the soldiery had become aware of their power’’<ref>Scarre, they disregarded any authority that was not aligned with their interests <ref> GibbonChris, I, Chp. 7</ref>. The result was endless civil wars that depleted Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: the reign-by-reign record of the ranks rulers of the legions and meant that they could not defend the Imperial provinces. It was only when Rome, (London, Thames & Hudson, 1995), p 198</ref> In other words, the army was brought under the control of Diocletian and his reformed administration that not controlled by any unified authority. The different legions sought to have their general become Emperor because of the civil wars ended, prestige and the legions could once again protect the Empiremonetary rewards they would secure upon their accession. ==Conclusion==The Third Century Crisis was As a fifty-year emergency when result, the legions in the Romans struggled to preserve their state and their way Balkans would fight those from the Western provinces to determine who should become the ruler of life. There are a series of factors that led to the crisisthe Roman World.  The constant invasions root cause of barbarians especially German tribal confederations meant the civil wars and endless usurpations was the fact that Rome could barely defend its bordershad not developed a formal succession process even though it was a de-facto monarchy. Then As a result, any general with an army could intimidate the rise of the Sassanian Empire meant that Senate to recognize his right to become the Roman legions were overstretched and constantly under pressurelegitimate Emperor. The impact of the constant fighting on the economy This led to a profoundly unstable system, and society for almost fifty years, there was devastating and seriously undermined the ability of successive Emperors to manage the military situationrarely a strong government. Then a series Because as Gibbon noted ‘the soldiery had become aware of natural disasterstheir power’, including plague and climate changethey disregarded any authority that was not aligned with their interests.<ref> Gibbon, damaged the Romans ability to fightI, Chp. 7</ref> The lack of a formal succession plan for Emperors led to result was endless civil wars that depleted the army becoming the power-broker legions' ranks and meant that they could not defend the Imperial provinces. It was only when the army was brought under Diocletian's control and this led his reformed administration that the civil wars ended, and the legions could once again protect the Empire. == Conclusion ==The Third Century Crisis was a fifty-year emergency when the Romans struggled to interminable civil wars and revolts. The Military Anarchy was perhaps the single most significant factor in the Third Century Crisis and the near destruction of the Roman Empire.preserve their state and their way of life. There are a series of factors that led to the crisis. The constant invasions of barbarians, especially German tribal confederations, meant that Rome could barely defend its borders. Then the rise of the Sassanian Empire meant that the Roman legions were overstretched and constantly under pressure. The constant fighting on the economy and society was devastating and seriously undermined the ability of successive Emperors to manage the military situation. A series of natural disasters, including plague and climate change, damaged the Romans' ability to fight. The lack of a formal succession plan for Emperors led to the army becoming the power-broker and this led to interminable civil wars and revolts. The Military Anarchy was perhaps the single most significant factor in the Third Century Crisis and the near destruction of the Roman Empire. ====Further Readings==Further Readings==

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