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===The Ptolemies of Egypt===__NOTOC__[[FileCleopatra (Cleopatra VII Philoptor: Pompey’sPillarII51 BCE - 30 BCE) was the Ptolemaic Dynasty's last ruler after she committed suicide.jpg|300px|thumbnail|left|Pompey’s Pillar in Alexandria]]After Cleopatra was the Macedonian general and conqueror Alexander III “the Great” died in 323 BCPtomley ruler, his generals divided the spoils but she was also connected romantically to two of the former Achaemenid Persian Empire. While the generalsmost Romans in history, known as the <i>Diadochi</i> were fighting for control of Greece Julius Caesar and Anatolia, Ptolemy I (ruled 305-282 BC) quietly became the king of EgyptMarc Antony. After he defeated another Macedonian general named Perdiccas for possession of Alexander’s body and control of Egyptreigniting the Roman Civil Wars, he she committed suicide when she was no longer threatened 20 years old to avoid being paraded around Rome by his kinsmen and was able to start Octavian as a new dynasty in Egypt comprised entirely of Macedonian Greekstrophy. <ref> Bowman, Alan K. <i>Egypt after the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642 from Alexander to the Arab Conquest.</i> (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1996), p. 22</ref> Ptolemy I established many of the cultural attributes that were representative of Ptolemaic Egypt and While it was during his reign is well known that the city of Alexandria was first built. Although he remained thoroughly Greek and never learned the Egyptian language, his coronation and some of the more impressive aspects of his reign were commemorated on the “Satrap Stela,” which was an Egyptian language text. <ref> Chauveau, Michael. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society under the Ptolemies.</i> Translated by David Lorton. (Ithacacommitted suicide, New York: Cornell University Press, 2000), p. 38</ref> The stela was an example there has been a great deal of debate about how the Ptolemies were willing to accept some features of traditional Egyptian culture on the outside while still remaining members of the Hellenistic world at their coreshe killed herself.
Ptolemies successors would go on to make Alexandria a cultural magnet She is known as it was a city where some of clever temptress who helped reignite the Roman Civil Wars and oversaw the greatest scholars collapse of the Hellenistic world traveled to Ptolemaic-Egyptian kingdom. Her life and death have been portrayed in order to establish themselves in their respective fields, including history, science, philosophy, fictionalized accounts on both the big and art. Although built on Egyptian soil, Alexandria was essentially a Greek citysmall screens, which was due most notably in large part to large scale Greek immigration to the city during the first 100 years of Ptolemaic rule. 1963 film <refi> Bowman, p. 122Cleopatra</refi> The result was that Alexandria looked and more like a Greek city with a veneer of Egyptian influence, while the rest of Egypt continued on as it had for centuries. Citizenship followed the Greek model, but a tripartite legal system developed where lawsuits, marriage customs, and criminal laws were followed according to membership recently in one of the three major ethnic communities: Greek, Egyptian, and Jewish. HBO series <refi> Bowman, pgs. 124-125Rome</refi> Along . The real Cleopatra was much more complex than how she is often depicted: she ruled Egypt with the political alterations the Ptolemies brought to Egypt, there were also significant cultural changes that took place. Later, a king's power during a period when the Romans took control of Egypt they continued the trend by building amphitheaters and other public monuments such as Pompey’s Pillar, which is dated to the third century ADrulership was often a male prerogative.
Roman influence in Ptolemaic Egypt began in the early second century BC. During that period, the Roman Republic was fresh off its victory over Carthage in the Second Punic War and the Hellenistic successor states were involved in internecine fighting for control of == Why did the east. Under King Ptolemy VI (reigned 180-145 BC), Ptolemaic Family rule Egypt became embroiled in a war with the Hellenistic successor kingdom known as the Seleucid Empire, which was led by Antiochus IV (ruled 175-164 BC). The war, known as the Sixth Syrian War (170-168 BC), was the last one between the two kingdoms and although the Seleucids technically won when he successfully invaded Egypt and proclaimed himself pharaoh, they were forced to leave when the Romans intervened. According to the second century AD Roman historian Dio, Antiochus IV knew better than to challenge the Romans:? ==
“In a campaign directed against Egypt he conquered After the Macedonian general and conqueror Alexander III “the Great” died in 323 BC, his generals divided the greater part spoils of the country and spent some time in besieging Alexandriaformer Achaemenid Persian Empire. When While the rest sought refuge with generals, known as the Romans<i>Diadochi</i>, Popilius was sent to Antiochus were fighting for control of Greece and bade him keep his hands off Egypt; for the brothersAnatolia, comprehending Ptolemy I (ruled 305-282 BC) quietly became the designs king of Antiochus, had become reconciledEgypt. When the latter was After he defeated another Macedonian general named Perdiccas for putting off his replypossession of Alexander’s body and control of Egypt, Popilius drew a circle about him with he was no longer threatened by his staff and demanded that he deliberate kinsmen and answer standing where he was. Antiochus then able to start a new dynasty in fear raised the siegeEgypt comprised entirely of Macedonian Greeks.” <ref> Cassius DioBowman, Alan K. <i> Roman History[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520205316/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520205316&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=3652d49207aeab2b3aaed7a4b330fb4 Egypt after the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642 from Alexander to the Arab Conquest].</i> Translated by Earnest Cary. (Cambridge, MassachusettsLos Angeles: Harvard University of California Press, 19541996), XX, 9, 25p. 22</ref>
===Cleopatra in Power===[[File: Dendera_Cesarion.jpg|300px|thumbnail|right|Relief from Ptolemy I established many of the Temple cultural attributes that were representative of Dendera in Ptolemaic Egypt Depicting Cleopatra VII , and Caesarion/Ptolemy XV Offering to the Egyptian Goddess Hathor]]The Cleopatra in question here it was actually during his reign that the seventh member city of the Ptolemaic Dynasty to take the nameAlexandria was first built. Cleopatra came to power when her long-ruling but mostly ineffective father Ptolemy XII (ruled 80-51 BC) declared before he died that Although he desired his oldest daughter, Cleopatra VII, remained thoroughly Greek and oldest sonnever learned the Egyptian language, Ptolemy XIII, to co-rule as king his coronation and queen. The rule would require that some of his reign's more impressive aspects were commemorated on the offspring marry“Satrap Stela, ” which was a practice initiated by the second Ptolemaic kingan Egyptian language text. <ref> Chauveau, Ptolemy II (reigned 284Michael. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0801485762/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0801485762&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-246 BC), and continued until 20&linkId=cf8066cf62dfe75be15daa7391c84dc8 Egypt in the end Age of Cleopatra: History and Society under the dynastyPtolemies]. <ref/i> BowmanTranslated by David Lorton. (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2000), p. 2438</ref> When Ptolemy XII died, Cleopatra VII The stela was sixteen and Ptolemy XIII was only twelve, which meant that there was bound an example of how the Ptolemies were willing to be plenty accept some features of traditional Egyptian culture on the outside while remaining members of court intriguethe Hellenistic world at their core.
It took little time before Ptolemy XIII and his advisors, who were no doubt pulling the strings, decided Cleopatra VII 's successors would make Alexandria a cultural magnet as it was no longer needed so she was expelled from Egypt. It was at that point that Egypt became a major theater city where some of the greatest scholars of operations during the Roman Civil Wars. The general Pompey fled Hellenistic world traveled to Egypt after his defeat to Julius Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus establish themselves in 48 BC; but instead of being welcomed in Egypttheir respective fields, including history, science, philosophy, and art. Although built on Egyptian soil, Pompey Alexandria was murderedessentially a Greek city, which gave Caesar the pretense was due in large part to enter Alexandria with his legions a large scale Greek immigration to make Cleopatra VII the sole ruler city during the first 100 years of Egypt in 47 BCPtolemaic rule. <ref> ChauveauBowman, p. 24122</ref>The result was that Alexandria looked more like a Greek city with a veneer of Egyptian influence, while the rest of Egypt continued as it had for centuries.
At that pointCitizenship followed the Greek model, Cleopatra was clearly more of an Egyptian than but a Macedonian ruler. The idea of a woman ruling alone was rare tripartite legal system developed where lawsuits, marriage customs, and criminal laws were followed according to membership in ancient Egypt, but not totally unheard one of, with at least the three known examples before Cleopatramajor ethnic communities: Greek, the best one being Hatshepsut (ruled caEgyptian, 1478-1458 BC). Hatshepsut adopted the titulary of kingship in texts and was shown with the accoutrements of kingship in artistic depictions, leaving no doubt to modern scholars that she was in fact a “king” in the pharaonic senseJewish. <ref> RobinsBowman, Gay. <i>Women in Ancient Egyptpgs.</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 46124-125</ref> There is no evidence Along with the political alterations the Ptolemies brought to suggest that Cleopatra consciously followed Hatshepsut’s exampleEgypt, or if she even knew about her illustrious predecessor, but there is little doubt that she were also assumed all of significant cultural changes. Later, when the prerogatives Romans took control of an ancient Egyptian kingEgypt, much like Hatshepsut. One of they continued the first things she did was to give her full support to Caesar trend by building amphitheaters and Romeother public monuments such as Pompey’s Pillar, which she believed would be bolstered when she gave birth is dated to his son, Ptolemy XV/Caesarion on July 23, 47 BC. <ref> Chauveau, pthe third century AD. 25</ref>
Any plan that Cleopatra may have had of ruling over Rome and Roman influence in Ptolemaic Egypt at Caesar’s side was dashed when he was assassinated on began in the Senate floor in 44 early second century BC. His assassination led to During that period, the formation of Roman Republic was fresh off its victory over Carthage in the Second Triumvirate by Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus and another round of the Civil WarsPunic War. After the trio achieved victory over Brutus, they divided their spoils with Mark Antony gaining The Hellenistic successor states were involved in internecine fighting for control of the allied eastern kingdomseast. Under King Ptolemy VI (reigned 180-145 BC), which included Ptolemaic Egypt. Mark Antony and Cleopatra soon found themselves as natural allies and later became embroiled in a war with the Hellenistic successor kingdom known as lovers: she wanted to restore the Ptolemaic Egyptian Seleucid Empire and he wanted to reorganize the east into Roman provinces. <ref> Chauveau, p. 26</ref> Eventually, Octavian made his own move to conquer all Roman territory which was led by declaring war on CleopatraAntiochus IV (ruled 175-164 BC). Mark Antony loyally went to The war for his ally and lover but , known as the Sixth Syrian War (170-168 BC), was soundly defeated by the upstart Octavian at last one between the two kingdoms. Although the Battle of Actium on September 2Seleucids technically won when he successfully invaded Egypt and proclaimed himself pharaoh, 31 BCthey were forced to leave when the Romans intervened. Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony fled According to Alexandria, but eleventh months later Octavian and the second century AD Roman army came calling. <ref> Chauveauhistorian Dio, p. 28</ref>Antiochus IV knew better than to challenge the Romans:
===The Death “In a campaign directed against Egypt, he conquered the greater part of Cleopatra=== [[File: M_Antoniusthe country and spent some time besieging Alexandria.jpg|300px|thumbnail|right|Mark Antony]]According When the rest sought refuge with the Romans, Popilius was sent to Antiochus and bade him keep his hands off Egypt, for the ancient sourcesbrothers, comprehending Antiochus's designs, when Octavian’s entry into Alexandria had become reconciled. When the latter was imminentfor putting off his reply, Mark Antony followed Roman tradition by falling on Popilius drew a circle about him with his gladius sword. There is little controversy surrounding the accounts because staff and demanded that is what a distinguished Roman officer such as Mark Antony would have been expected to do he deliberate and there is no evidence to suggest answer standing where he did otherwisewas. Cleopatra’s deathAntiochus then, thoughin fear, has been a bit more controversial largely due to raised the oldest classical accountsiege. The first century AD Roman historian Plutarch and ” <ref> Cassius Dio were the last two classical historians to mention Cleopatra’s death. <i> Roman History.</i> Translated by Earnest Cary. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1954), which they claimed was the result of a snake biteXX, but the earliest reference was made by the first century BC Greek geographer9, Strabo. The account gives two possibilities for Cleopatra’s death:25</ref>
“Augustus Caesar honoured this place because it was here that he conquered in battle those who came out against him with Antony; and when he had taken the city at the first onset, he forced Antony to put himself to death and == When did Cleopatra came into his power alive; but a little later she too put herself to death secretly, while in prison, by rule Egypt? ==[[File: Dendera_Cesarion.jpg|250px|left|thumbnail|Relief from the bite Temple of an asp or (for two accounts are given) by applying a poisonous ointment; Dendera in Egypt Depicting Cleopatra VII and Caesarion/Ptolemy XV Offering to the result was that the empire of the sons of Lagus, which had endured for many years, was dissolved.” <ref> Strabo. <i>Geography.</i> Translated by Horace Leonard Jones. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001), Book XVII, 1, 10</ref>Egyptian Goddess Hathor]]
All modern scholars agree that The Cleopatra took her own life in some fashionquestion here was actually the seventh member of the Ptolemaic Dynasty to take the name. If Cleopatra would have surrendered came to Octavianpower when her long-ruling but mostly ineffective father Ptolemy XII (ruled 80-51 BC) declared before he died that he desired his oldest daughter, Cleopatra VII, and oldest son, Ptolemy XIII, she would have been brought back to Rome co-rule as a prisoner, probably tortured, king and then more than likely ritually strangled in a public spectaclequeen. A pharaoh The rule would never suffer such indignities so there is little doubt require that she committed suicidethe offspring marry, but a practice initiated by the question remainssecond Ptolemaic king, Ptolemy II (reigned 284-246 BC), which method did she use? Some scholars believe that and continued until the end of the poison theory is attractive and point out that according to later ancient sources she was well-schooled in poison loredynasty. <ref> ScarboroughBowman, John. “Cleopatra’s Asp.” <i>Pharmacy in History.</i> 37 (1995) p. 3324</ref>When Ptolemy XII died, Cleopatra VII was sixteen, and Ptolemy XIII was only twelve, which meant that there was bound to be plenty of court intrigue.
Logic would dictateIt took little time before Ptolemy XIII and his advisors, thoughwho were undoubtedly pulling strings, that it would have been easier for decided Cleopatra to commit suicide by snake bite than through ingesting poisonVII was no longer needed, so she was expelled from Egypt. Getting It was at that point that Egypt became a major theater of operations during the right poison may have been difficult Roman Civil Wars. The general Pompey fled to do while under guard, but there were plenty of poisonous snakes around Egypt after his defeat to Julius Caesar at the time. Also, there is the symbolic importance Battle of an Egyptian ruler dying from a snake bite that should be considered. Along with being knowledgeable on medicinal topics, Cleopatra was the only Ptolemy who could speak the Egyptian language and by all accounts she was well-versed Pharsalus in all aspects 48 BC; but instead of pharaonic culture. <ref> Bowman, p. 24</ref> Because of this knowledge, she would have known that the <i>uraeus</i>, a cobra often depicted on crowns being welcomed in Egyptian statuaryEgypt, Pompey was a sign of kingship. During the Ptolemaic Periodmurdered, which gave Caesar the double <i>ureaus</i> became particularly popular in statuary and reliefs. <ref> Griffiths, J. Gwyn. “The Death of Cleopatra VII.” <i>Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.</i> 47 (1961) p. 118</ref> Due pretense to these factors, Griffiths argued in enter Alexandria with his article that legions to make Cleopatra probably wore a crown with VII the double <i>uraeus</i> and that when she committed suicide she did so with two cobras that were brought to her sole ruler of Egypt in a basket containing figs, as Plutarch mentioned in his account47 BC. <ref> GriffithsChauveau, p. 11824</ref>
===Conclusion===Cleopatra VII was truly a remarkable woman who influenced the course of history in the ancient world. Although she demonstrated incredible guile and intelligence, Cleopatra is unfortunately remembered best for her more tabloidesque affairs and situations, one of them being the manner of her death. There is no doubt that Cleopatra died by her own hands, which was more than likely done through the venom of a snake, or snakes; but until more evidence is uncovered there will be some who believe she ingested a pharmaceutical poison. <dh-ad/>
Admin moved page How Did Cleopatra Die? to How Did Cleopatra Die
[[File: Cleopatra_VII.jpg|300px250px|thumbnail|left|Bust of Cleopatra]]Cleopatra is perhaps one of the most recognized names of all ancient personalities. She is known as a clever temptress who helped reignite the Roman Civil Wars and oversaw the collapse of the Ptolemaic-Egyptian kingdom. Her life and death has been portrayed in fictionalized accounts on both the big and small screens, most notably in the 1963 film <i>Cleopatra</i> and more recently in the HBO series <i>Rome</i>. The real Cleopatra was much more complex than how she is often depicted: she ruled Egypt with the power of a king during a period when rulership was often a male prerogative. It is true that Cleopatra played a pivotal role in the last phase of the Roman Civil Wars, but in the final analysis it is clear that she was as much as a “player” with her own agency as Mark Antony or Octavian. Perhaps one of the more fascinating and controversial aspects of Cleopatra’s life is her death. After Cleopatra’s and Mark Antony’s forces lost to Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, the pair had few options. Mark Antony took his life in true Roman fashion by stabbing himself with his gladius, while Cleopatra was said to have either died from the bite of a venomous snake or some other type of poison. An examination of the classical sources combined with more recent studies indicates that Cleopatra more than likely did die from a venomous snake bite.
Cleopatra indeed played a pivotal role in the last phase of the Roman Civil Wars. Still, in the final analysis, she was as much a “player” with her own agency as Mark Antony or Octavian. Perhaps one of the more fascinating and controversial aspects of Cleopatra’s life is her death. After Cleopatra’s and Mark Antony’s forces lost to Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, the pair had few options. Mark Antony took his life in true Roman fashion by stabbing himself with his gladius, while Cleopatra was said to have either died from the bite of a venomous snake or some other type of poison. An examination of the classical sources combined with more recent studies indicates that Cleopatra more than likely did die from a venomous snake bite.
== Why did Cleopatra ally with Julius Caesar? ==At that point, Cleopatra was clearly more of an Egyptian than a Macedonian ruler. The idea of a woman ruling alone was rare in ancient Egypt, but not totally unheard of, with at least three known examples before Cleopatra, the best one being Hatshepsut (ruled ca, 1478-1458 BC). Hatshepsut adopted the titulary of kingship in texts and was shown with the accouterments of kingship in artistic depictions, leaving no doubt to modern scholars that she was, in fact, a “king” in the pharaonic sense. <ref> Robins, Gay. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674954696/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0674954696&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=6b94f30f49ec6e295d5ca206d6b8ce3b Women in Ancient Egypt].</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 46</ref> There is no evidence to suggest that Cleopatra consciously followed Hatshepsut’s example, or if she even knew about her illustrious predecessor. Still, there is little doubt that she also assumed all of the prerogatives of an ancient Egyptian king, much like Hatshepsut. One of the first things she did was give her full support to Caesar and Rome, which she believed would be bolstered when she gave birth to his son, Ptolemy XV/Caesarion, on July 23, 47 BC. <ref> Chauveau, p. 25</ref> == What happened to Cleopatra after Caesar was killed? ==Cleopatra's plan may have had of ruling over Rome and Egypt at Caesar’s side was dashed when he was assassinated on the Senate floor in 44 BC. His assassination led to the Second Triumvirate's formation by Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus and another round of the Civil Wars. After the trio achieved victory over Brutus, they divided their spoils with Mark Antony gaining control of the allied eastern kingdoms, which included Ptolemaic Egypt. Mark Antony and Cleopatra soon found themselves as natural allies and later as lovers: she wanted to restore the Ptolemaic Egyptian Empire and he wanted to reorganize the east into Roman provinces. <ref> Chauveau, p. 26</ref> Eventually, Octavian made his own move to conquer all Roman territory by declaring war on Cleopatra. Mark Antony loyally went to war with Cleopatra but was soundly defeated by the upstart Octavian at the Battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BC. Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony fled to Alexandria, but eleven months later, Octavian and the Roman army came calling. <ref> Chauveau, p. 28</ref> == What killed Cleopatra? == [[File: M_Antonius.png|250px|thumbnail|left|Mark Antony]] According to the ancient sources, when Octavian’s entry into Alexandria was imminent, Mark Antony followed Roman tradition by falling on his gladius sword. There is little controversy surrounding the accounts because that is what a distinguished Roman officer such as Mark Antony would have been expected to do. There is no evidence to suggest he did otherwise. Cleopatra’s death, though, has been a bit more controversial, largely due to the oldest classical account. The first century AD Roman historian Plutarch and Cassius Dio were the last two classical historians to mention Cleopatra’s death, which they claimed was the result of a snake bite. Still, the earliest reference was made by the first century BC Greek geographer Strabo. The account gives two possibilities for Cleopatra’s death: “Augustus Caesar honored this place because it was here that he conquered in battle those who came out against him with Antony; and when he had taken the city at the first onset, he forced Antony to put himself to death and Cleopatra came into his power alive; but a little later she too put herself to death secretly, while in prison, by the bite of an asp or (for two accounts are given) by applying a poisonous ointment; and the result was that the empire of the sons of Lagus, which had endured for many years, was dissolved.” <ref> Strabo. <i>Geography.</i> Translated by Horace Leonard Jones. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001), Book XVII, 1, 10</ref> All modern scholars agree that Cleopatra took her own life in some fashion. If Cleopatra had surrendered to Octavian, she would have been brought back to Rome as a prisoner, probably tortured, and then more than likely ritually strangled in a public spectacle. A pharaoh would never suffer such indignities, so there is little doubt that she committed suicide, but the question remains, which method did she use? According to later ancient sources, some scholars believe that the poison theory is attractive and point out that she was well-schooled in poison lore. <ref> Scarborough, John. “Cleopatra’s Asp.” <i>Pharmacy in History.</i> 37 (1995) p. 33</ref> Logic would dictate, though, that it would have been easier for Cleopatra to commit suicide by snakebite than through ingesting poison. Getting the right poison may have been difficult to do while under guard, but there were plenty of poisonous snakes around Egypt at the time. Also, the symbolic importance of an Egyptian ruler dying from a snake bite should be considered. Besides being knowledgeable on medicinal topics, Cleopatra was the only Ptolemy who could speak the Egyptian language. By all accounts, she was well-versed in all aspects of pharaonic culture. <ref> Bowman, p. 24</ref> Because of this knowledge, she would have known that the <i>uraeus</i>, a cobra often depicted on crowns in Egyptian statuary, was a sign of kingship. During the Ptolemaic Period, the double <i>ureaus</i> became particularly popular in statuary and reliefs. <ref> Griffiths, J. Gwyn. “The Death of Cleopatra VII.” <i>Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.</i> 47 (1961) p. 118</ref> Due to these factors, Griffiths argued in his article that Cleopatra probably wore a crown with the double <i>uraeus</i> and that when she committed suicide she did so with two cobras that were brought to her in a basket containing figs, as Plutarch mentioned in his account. <ref> Griffiths, p. 118</ref> == Conclusion ==Cleopatra VII was truly a remarkable woman who influenced the course of history in the ancient world. Although she demonstrated incredible guile and intelligence, Cleopatra is unfortunately remembered best for her more tabloidesque affairs and the manner of her death. There is no doubt that Cleopatra died by her own hands, which was more than likely done through the venom of a snake or snakes, but until more evidence is uncovered, there will be some who believe she ingested a pharmaceutical poison. ====References====<references/><div class="portal" style='float:left; width:35%'> ====Related Articles===={{#dpl:category=Roman History|ordermethod=firstedit|order=descending|count=11}}</div> [[Category:Wikis]][[Category:Roman History]][[Category:Ancient Egyptian History]]{{Contributors}}