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__NOTOC__[[File:Olmec 1-58d925da3df78c5162d1ba64.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Figure 1. The Olmecs became very influential on Mayan culture and formed perhaps the earliest complex society in the Mayan regions.]]Before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World, the ancient Maya thrived and relatively rapidly disintegrated as a major political force. While the Maya, as a people, persisted long after the collapse of the Classical Maya civilizations, their cities were much reduced or abandoned by the time Columbus arrived. Did climate change have an important role in this? This is a question researchers have long tried to answer and recent answers might provide some new insights.

==Rise of the Maya==The societies that were the precursors to the Maya experienced greater social complexity during the period between 2000 BC and 250 AD. Towns and soon cities such as Nakbe in Guatemala, Kaminaljuyu, and Mirador grew. Agriculture focusing on maize, beans, and squash developed that helped lead to more long-term sedentary villages that also thrived through increased trade. Pottery and ceramic objects developed along with different forms of stone works, in particular jade and obsidian works. Communities began to form kingdoms and worship focused on the jaguar in different regions. The Olmecs Did climate change have an important role in southern Mexico likely formed the first true complex society that would later influence the Classical Maya civilization as well as the Aztecs (Figure 1). During this time, evidence from lake sediments indicate oscillating change in the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) winds. ? This had an effect of providing either greater or less rain. During the period around 1500-600 BC, conditions may is a question researchers have been favourable for increased rain that allowed the Olmecs long tried to thrive, while at around 600 BC and later there is evidence of more drier cycles. In effect, farming may have become more conducive during the early pre-Classical phases of the Maya, while it decline in the later phases.<ref>For more on the role of El Niño/Southern Oscillation on the rise answer and collapse of the early pre-Classic Maya societies, see: Brooke, J. L. (2014). <i>Climate Change and the Course of Global History</i>. West Nyack: Cambridge University Press, pg. 310recent answers might provide some new insights.</ref>

[[File:Olmec 1====Rise of the Maya====The societies that were the precursors to the Maya experienced greater social complexity during the period between 2000 BC and 250 AD. Towns and soon cities such as Nakbe, Kaminaljuyu, and El-58d925da3df78c5162d1ba64Mirador in Guatemala grew too large sizes.jpg|thumb|Figure 1Agriculture focusing on maize, beans, and squash developed that helped lead to more long-term sedentary villages that also thrived through increased trade. The Olmec's became very influential on Mayan culture Pottery and formed perhaps the earliest complex society ceramic objects developed along with different forms of stone works, in the Mayan regionsparticular, jade and obsidian works.]]

==Communities began to form kingdoms and worship focused on the jaguar in different regions. Sacred kingship soon likely arose. The Olmecs in southern Mexico likely formed the first true complex society that would later influence the Classical Maya==civilization as well as the Aztecs (Figure 1). The Olmecs spread throughout central and southern Mexico, while also spreading their influence south to Central America.<ref>For more on the pre-Classical Maya civilizations of Mexico and Central America, see: Estrada Belli, F. (2011). <i>The first Maya civilization: ritual and power before the classic period</i>. London ; New York: Routledge. </ref>

The Classical Maya period lasted During this time, evidence from about 250-900 AD, a period that led to lake sediments indicates oscillating changes in the development of large-scale urban areas and monumental architectureEl Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) winds. This was a period had an effect of city-states and competing polities rather than a single, long-lived and dominant entityproviding either greater or less rain. Some of During the largest center likely had populations of over 100,000 people, occupying areas period around Honduras, Guatemala1500-600 BC, and southern Mexico. The great Mayan cities, such as Tikal, were politically involved and often influenced by Teotihuacan, the great central Mexican city to the north conditions may have been favorable for increased rain that likely was allowed the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas. The other great city at this time was Calakmul, which formed as a rival Olmecs to Tikal. Chichen Itza (Figure 2) to the north in the modern Yucatán, and Copan, to the south in Honduras, also competed with these cities thrive and likely formed alliancesexpand, including with Teotihuacan. The great Maya pyramids were built while at this time, which represented temples to the gods around 600 BC and places later there is evidence of sacrifice. Writing was developed, including monumental inscriptions and calendars used to mark events and important more drier cycles. As writing was now used on monumental inscriptions, these provided also dates in which buildings can be attributed to. By around 900 ADIn effect, farming may have become more conducive during the number early pre-Classical phases of new buildings declines steadily. Soon after this, some of the great cities were either abandoned or were much reduced in population. This has led some scholars to call this sudden change as the "Classic Maya Collapse." Initially ideas centred around warfare or even disease; however, some scholars noted when the rapid changes cultural expansion is evident in societies and abandonment suggested something different and more drastic. Out of the possibilities that could lead to collapse, it began to emerge that climate might be a major factor while its decline in the decline of the Mayaslater phases.<ref>For more on the Classical role of El Niño/Southern Oscillation on the rise and collapse of the early pre-Classic Mayasocieties, see: Houston Brooke, SJ. D., & Inomata, TL. (20092014). <i>The classic MayaClimate Change and the Course of Global History</i>. New YorkWest Nyack: Cambridge University Press, pg. 310. </ref>

====The Classical Maya====[[File:1033888864.jpg|thumb|left|275|Figure 2. El Castillo is the great Mayan pyramid in Chichen Itza, one of the great Classical Mayan sites.]]The Classical Maya period lasted from about 250-900 AD, a period that led to the development of large-scale urban areas and monumental architecture. This was a period of city-states and competing polities rather than a single, long-lived and dominant entity. Scholars have compared it to the period of city-states in ancient Greece or Medieval Italy. Some of the largest centers likely had populations of over 100,000 people, occupying areas around Honduras, Guatemala, and southern Mexico.

==Collapse of the Maya==There is evidence of increased drought during or around 900 ADThe great Mayan cities, with scholars often attributing the "collapse" period such as being between 800-1000 AD. The Yucatecan lake sediment cores show very severe droughts that not only meant less rainfall but the thin soils that Maya agriculture Tikal, were dependent on were particularly vulnerable to sudden change as they were also relatively less fertile. Tree ring data politically involved and climate modeling have also been conductedoften influenced by Teotihuacan, helping the great central Mexican city to show that there is multiple lines of evidence the north that likely drought occurredwas the largest city in pre-Columbian Americas, with perhaps nearly 150,000 people. In fact, in One of the northern hemisphere other great cities at around 800-1000 ADthis time was Calakmul, increasing cold temperature are evidentwhich formed as a rival to Tikal. Those colder temperatures would have had Chichen Itza (Figure 2) to the effect of creating more drier conditions north in the modern Yucatán, and Copan, to the south in Mexico Honduras, also competed with these cities and Central America.<ref>For more on likely formed alliances, including with Teotihuacan while sometimes coming under the role influence of climate in the great powers. The great Maya pyramids were built at this collapsetime, see: Hodell, D. A., Curtis, J. H., & Brenner, M. (1995). Possible role of climate in which represented temples to the collapse gods and places of Classic Maya civilization. <i>Nature</i>, 375(6530), 391–394sacrifice.</ref>

More recentlyWriting was developed, more precise information including monumental inscriptions and calendars used to mark events and important cycles. As writing was now used on isotopic changes monumental inscriptions, these also provided dates in sediments has allowed a more direct quantification on how much rainfall had to change to lead which buildings can be attributed to . By around 900 AD, the collapse number of new building inscriptions declines steadily. Soon after this, some of the Mayagreat cities were either abandoned or were much reduced in population. Recent work This transformation has shown that between 41% and 54% (with intervals of up led some scholars to 70%) of rainfall reduction in call this sudden change as the Mayan regions likely occurred"Classic Maya Collapse. In other words" Initially, reduction ideas centered around warfare or even disease; however, some scholars noted the rapid changes evident in rainfall was societies and abandonment suggested something different and more drastic and there was an accompanied decline in humidity. Out of the possibilities that could lead to collapse, which likely led it began to more rapid drying with rainfall emerge that fellclimate might be a major factor in the decline of the Mayas.<ref>For more on the change in rainfall and how much this can be quantified to beClassical Maya, see: EvansHouston, NS. PD., Bauska& Inomata, T. K., Gázquez-Sánchez, F., Brenner, M., Curtis, J. H., & Hodell, D. A. (20182009). Quantification of drought during the collapse of the classic Maya civilization. <i>ScienceThe classic Maya</i>, 361(6401), 498–501. New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

In fact, relative to today, the region ====Collapse of the Maya occupied was very different. It had been assumed the Maya created cities within jungles. However====There is evidence of increased drought during or around 900 AD, the regions the Maya occupied were with scholars often drier, seasonally wet places that had cycle rains that attributing the Maya likely increasingly became dependent on. That pattern began to change "collapse" period as being between 800-1000 AD, which likely disrupted the agricultural system the Maya depended on. The agricultural system, composed of canals, terracing, raised fieldsYucatecan lake sediment cores show very severe droughts that not only meant less rainfall, began to not be sustainable relative to but the new, emergent climate. Wider environmental decline may have accompanied climatic change thin soils that affected the success of Maya agriculture.<ref>For more was dependent on wider environmental were particularly vulnerable to sudden change, including the ecology, see: Kuil, Las they were also relatively less fertile.Tree ring data and climate modeling have also been conducted, Carr, G., Viglione, A., Prskawetz, A., & Blöschl, G. (2016). Conceptualizing socio-hydrological helping to show that there are multiple lines of evidence that likely drought processes: The case of the Maya collapse: Socio-Hydrological Drought Processes. <i>Water Resources Research</i>, 52(8), 6222–6242. https://doi.org/10occurred.1002/2015WR018298 </ref>

==Summary==Although In fact, in the sonorthern hemisphere at around 800-called "Classic Maya Collapse" has long fascinated scholars1000 AD, the truth increasing cold temperature is the Maya never really disappearedevident. In fact, Maya cultures continue to this day. However, after Those colder temperatures would have had the Classic period, cultures prior effect of creating more drier conditions to the arrival of Columbus were much reducedsouth in Mexico and Central America. The northern lowlands and highlands began to take <ref>For more importance on the role of climate in later Maya societiesthis collapse, see: Hodell, D. A. Mayan cities continued and the last city did not fall until 1697, when the Spanish conquered the last holdout independent Mayan cityCurtis, J. H. Nevertheless, changes after & Brenner, M. (1995). Possible role of climate in the Classical collapse of Classic Maya period indicate that Mayan society did change drastically and it is evident that the environment and climate in Central American and southern Mexico was likely very different than todaycivilization. Changes that occurred meant that a system that had been created to be adapted to the climate was no longer suitable<i>Nature</i>, 375(6530), leading to a change that meant Mayan societies became smaller-scale and adapted to very different climate and environmental conditions391–394.</ref>

More recently, more precise information on isotopic changes in sediments has allowed a more direct quantification on how much rainfall had to change to lead to the collapse of the Maya. Recent work has shown that between 41% and 54% (with intervals of up to 70%) of rainfall reduction in the Mayan regions likely occurred. In other words, reduction in rainfall was drastic, and there was an accompanying decline in humidity, which likely led to more rapid drying with rainfall that fell.<ref>For more on the change in rainfall and how much this can be quantified to be, see: Evans, N. P., Bauska, T. K., Gázquez-Sánchez, F., Brenner, M., Curtis, J. H., & Hodell, D. A. (2018). Quantification of drought during the collapse of the classic Maya civilization. <i>Science</i>, 361(6401), 498–501.</ref> Relative to today, the region the Maya occupied was very different. It had been assumed the Maya created cities within jungles. However, the regions the Maya occupied were often drier, seasonally wet places that had cyclical rains that the Maya likely increasingly became dependent on. Only later after the cities were abandoned, they became jungles. That pattern of climate began to change between 800-1000 AD, which likely disrupted the agricultural system the Maya depended on. The agricultural system, composed of canals, terracing, raised fields, and other systems began not to be sustainable relative to the new, emergent climate. Wider environmental decline may have accompanied climatic change that affected the success of agriculture, such as a decline in the complex agricultural system created.<ref>For more on wider environmental change, including the ecology, see: Kuil, L., Carr, G., Viglione, A., Prskawetz, A., & Blöschl, G. (2016). Conceptualizing socio-hydrological drought processes: The case of the Maya collapse: Socio-Hydrological Drought Processes. <i>Water Resources Research</i>, 52(8), 6222–6242. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015WR018298 </ref> ====Summary====Although the so-called "Classic Maya Collapse" has long fascinated scholars, the truth is the Maya never really disappeared. Maya cultures continue to this day. However, after the Classic period, cultures before the arrival of Columbus were much reduced. The northern lowlands and highlands began to take more importance in later Maya societies. Mayan cities continued, and the last city did not fall until 1697 when the Spanish conquered the last holdout independent Mayan city.  Nevertheless, changes after the Classical Maya period indicate that Mayan society did change drastically and it is evident that the environment and climate in Central America and southern Mexico were likely very different than today. Changes that occurred meant that a system that had been created to be adapted to the climate was no longer suitable, leading to a change that meant Mayan societies became smaller-scale and adapted to very different climate and environmental conditions. <div class="portal" style="width:85%;"> ====Related DailyHistory.org Articles====*[[How did climate change influence Medieval and Early Modern Europe?]]*[[How did climate change influence the rise of ancient Egypt?]]*[[How Was Science Practiced in Ancient Babylon?]]*[[How did climate change influence ancient Chinese societies?]]*[[What Caused the Rise of Agriculture?]]*[[How Were the Assyrians able to Conquer the Ancient Near East]]</div> ====References====<References/> [[Category:Mexican History]][[Category:Environmental History]][[Category:Pre-Columbian History]][[Category:Wikis]][[Category:History of Science]] {{Contributors}}