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{{Mediawiki__NOTOC__[[File:kindlefire}}Blackdeath,_tourmai.jpg|thumbnail|left|Contemporary Image of Black Death]]The Black Death (1347-1350) was a pandemic that devastated the populations of Europe and Asia. The plague was an unprecedented human tragedy in Italy. It not only shook Italian society, but transformed it. The Black Death marked an end of an era in Italy, its impact was profound , and it resulted in wide-ranging social, economic, cultural and religious changes.<ref> Burckhardt, Jacob (1878), ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/014044534X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=014044534X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=c69db648577e5fea459a41232bb349e6 The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy]'', trans. S.G.C Middlemore, p. 14.</ref> These changes, directly and indirectly, led to the emergence of the Renaissance, one of the greatest epochs for art, architecture, and literature in human history.

====The Impact of the Plague of Italy====To Black Death spread to Italy from modern-day Russia. Genoese merchants spread the plague while fleeing a Mongol attack on their trading post in Crimea. The plague was carried and spread by the fleas that lived on the Black Rat and brought to Italy on the Genoese ships.<ref>Pullan, Brian S. ''[[Filehttps://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00CMHGO4K/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B00CMHGO4K&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=15e48ba82dfc5f5eeee14a1e5eca5898 History of early Renaissance Italy: From the mid-thirteenth to the mid-fifteenth century]'' (London:BlackdeathAllen Lane, 1973),_tourmaip.jpg|thumbnail|Contemporary Image 76 </ref> The population of Black Death]]Italy was ill prepared for the spread of the disease. There had been a series of famine and food shortages in the region, and the population was weak and vulnerable to disease, and furthermore, the population did not have any natural resistance to the disease. Italy was the most urbanized society in Europe, Milan, Rome, Florence, and other Italian centers among the largest on the continent.<ref> Pullan, 1973, p. 89</ref>

==The Impact of the Plague of Italy==To Black Death spread to Italy from modern-day Russia. It was spread by Genoese merchants fleeing a Mongol attack on their trading post in Crimea. The plague was carried and spread by the fleas that lived on the Black Rat and brought to Italy on the Genoese ships.<ref>Pullan, Brian S. ''History of early Renaissance Italy: From the mid-thirteenth to the mid-fifteenth century'' (London: Allen Lane, 1973), p. 76 </ref> The population of Italy was ill prepared for the spread of the disease. There had been a series of famine and food shortages in the region and the population was weak and vulnerable to disease and furthermore, the population did not have any natural resistance to the disease. Italy was the most urbanised society in Europe, Milan, Rome, Florence and other Italian centres among the largest on the continent<ref> Pullan, 1973, p. 89</ref>. The majority of the urban population in cities such as Naples were impoverished and lived in squalid and dirty conditions. These factors ensured that the diseases spread quickly and that there was a high level of mortality, among the poor, although even the rich could not escape the plague.<ref> Andrew B. Appleby's "Epidemics and Famine in the Little Ice Age." ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History''. Vol. 10 No. 4., p. 56</ref> From the cities,the plague spread like wildfire to the small towns and villages of the peninsula. [[File:Danse_macabre_by_Michael_Wolgemut.png|thumbnail|left| Dance of Death image from 15th-century woodcut]]There is no firm data on the impact of the plague on the population of Italy. However, some examples show the full extent of the disease in Italy. The plague halved the population of Florence. The population crashed and fell from approximately 100,000 to 50,000. The experience of Florence was replicated across all the major cities of Italy which also experienced similar drastic declines. The death rate in rural Italy was not nearly as high, but there was a significant loss of life. In general, the total population of Italy may have dropped by as much as a third.<ref>Pullan, 1973, p. 156.</ref>

There is no firm data on The Black Death was also an economic crisis as trade ceased because of fear of the impact spread of plague. As trade stagnated, businesses failed, and unemployment rose. The plague caused a complete social breakdown in many areas. Boccaccio in the plague on Decameron, describes people abandoning their occupations, ignoring the population sick and living lives of Italywild excess, as everyone expected to die. However<blockquote>"Thus, doing exactly as they prescribed, some examples show they spent day and night moving from one tavern to the full extent next, drinking without mode or measure, or doing the same thing in other people's homes, engaging only in those activities that gave them pleasure….. And they combined this bestial behavior with as complete an avoidance of the disease on Italysick as they could manage."<ref> Boccaccio, Giovanni. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140449302/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0140449302&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=199bd9b0ec199319d106dc174065bb99 The Decameron]. It has been estimated that the population of Florence was halved'' (Penguin Classics, it fell from approximately 100Hammondsworth,000 to 501987) trans Mark Musa,000p. This was not unusual and all 6</ref></blockquote>{{Mediawiki:TabletAd1}}====Socio-Economic Consequences====The social consequences of the major cities of Italy experienced plague on society came to be profound. The high mortality rate resulted in a similar drastic declinein the labor force. <ref> Hay, Denys. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0521291046/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0521291046&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=20ec38bb2892fda8011774d1b91c7f5b The death rate Italian Renaissance in rural Italy may not have been as greatIts Historical Background]''. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1997) p. 19</ref> Wages rose for both agricultural and urban workers. The survivors of the Black Death generally had a higher standard of living than before the plague.<ref> Hays, but nevertheless1997, there p. 78 </ref> This was a significant loss of lifephenomenon that occurred in both urban and rural areas. In generalThe crisis caused by the Black Death led to many changes in the economy, in response to the fall in the population . Because of Italy may have dropped by the labor shortages, there was a move from labor-intensive farming such as much as a thirdcereal to livestock and increase both in industry and agriculture more labor-saving devices employed.<ref>Pullan, 19731997, p. 156.145 </ref> The impact of the Black Death was contrary on feudalism in Italy. Feudalism was a system whereby peasants and farm laborers bound, as serfs, to serve a local lord. In the north of Italy, good farmland was plentiful, and wages increased, and the last vestiges of feudalism disappeared as serfs increasingly could purchase their freedom.

The Black Death was also an economic crisis as trade ceased because of fear In the south of Italy the opposite occurred, here, since the Norman kings, the spread of plaguearistocracy had been consolidating feudalism. As trade stagnatedAfter the Black Death, businesses failed the elite responded to the labor shortages by strengthening the restrictions on the peasants and unemployment rosethereby strengthened feudalism in southern Italy. The consequences of the plague caused resulted in a complete social breakdown in many areas growing divide between the North and crime and violence became more commonSouth of Italy that persists to this day.<ref>Benedictow, Ole Jørgen ''[https://www.amazon. Boccaccio in the Decameroncom/gp/product/1843832143/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1843832143&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=449097edacea911d1f7384a876564988 Black Death 1346–1353: The Complete History]'' (Cambridge, describes people abandoning their occupationsCambridge University Press, ignoring the sick and living lives 2004) p. 234</ref> In general, after a period of wild excessrecovery, much of Italy became very wealthy as everyone expected to diea more sophisticated economy emerged, especially in the North of Italy. ‘Thus This was crucial, doing exactly as they prescribed, they spent day and night moving from one tavern to the nextincreased wealth of Italy allowed the elite, drinking without mode or measure, or doing such as the same thing De Medici’s in other people's homes, engaging only in those activities that gave them pleasure….. And they combined this bestial behavior with as complete an avoidance Florence to become the patrons of the sick great artists such as they could manageMichelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.'<ref> BoccaccioFrederick Hartt, Giovanniand David G. Wilkins, ''The Decameron[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0131882473/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0131882473&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=6cfea7bdf46c76a3b637cf054ebc4f63 History of Italian Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture]'' (Penguin ClassicsOxford University Press, HammondsworthOxford, 19872003) trans Mark Musa, p. 667</ref> [[File{{Mediawiki:Danse_macabre_by_Michael_Wolgemut.png|thumbnail| Dance of Death image from 15th century woodcut]]TabletAd1}}

==Socio-Economic ==Religious Consequences====Initially, in Italy, the plague led to a revival in religion among many. The middle ages was a time when people believed that events are a result of God’s will. Many viewed the plague as punishment for God for the wickedness and immorality of the people. There was an upsurge in religious observance, and many sections of the public became swept by religious fervor, as many sincerely believed that the Black Death was a sign that the end of the world was coming.<ref>Benedictow, 2004, p. 234</ref> Religious fanaticism spread throughout the peninsula and many men and women performed in extreme religious practices, such as the flagellants. The flagellants whipped themselves into a frenzy to atone for their sins. The Church suffered greatly during the plague, many priests and especially monks died. The monasteries proved ideal breeding grounds for the plague while many priests contracted the sickness as they gave the last rites to the dying. <ref>Benedictow, 2004, p. 234</ref>

The social consequences result was a shortage of trained monks and priests. To deal with this, the plague on society came Church hastily trained new monks and priests to be profound. The high mortality rate resulted in a drastic decline in serve the spiritual needs of the labour force.<ref> Haycommunity, Denys. ''The Italian Renaissance in Its Historical Background''. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1997) p. 19</ref>. Wages rose for both agricultural and urban workers. The survivors still coming to terms with the trauma of the Black Death generally had a higher standard of living than before the plague <ref> Hays, 1997, p. 78 </ref> This was a phenomenon meant that occurred in both urban many unsuitable individuals became clerics and rural areas. The crisis caused by the Black Death this led to many changes a drop in the economystandards among parish priests, in response to the fall in the population. Because of the labour shortages there was a move from labour intensive farming such as cereal to livestock and increasingly both in industry and agriculture more labour saving devices employedparticular.<ref> PullanHays, 1997, p 145 . 178 </ref> The impact Church became corrupt and gradually over time lost the respect of many believers. In the short term the Black Death was contrary on feudalism strengthened the Catholic Church in Italy. Feudalism was a system whereby peasants and farm labourers bound, as serfs, to serve a local lord. In but in the north of Italylong run, good farmland was plentiful and wages increased and the last vestiges of feudalism disappeared as serfs an increasingly could purchase corrupt institution meant that many people lost their freedomfaith. In This led to the south increasing secularisation of Italy Italian society as many increasingly turned away from the opposite occurred, here, since church in disgust as the Norman kings, the aristocracy had been consolidating feudalism. After the Black Death, the elite responded to the labour shortages by strengthening the restrictions on the peasants worldliness of prelates and thereby strengthened feudalism in southern Italypriests. The consequences of the plague resulted contempt that many felt is evident in a growing divide between the North stories of Boccaccio of venal and South of Italy that persists to this daydepraved priests, monks and nuns.<ref>BenedictowBoccaccio, Ole Jørgen ''Black Death 1346–1353: The Complete History'' (Cambridge1987, Cambridge University Pressp 67,2004) p. 234113</ref> In generalThe church had traditionally monopolized education, but after a period of recoverythe Black Death, much of Italy became very wealthy as a there was more sophisticated economy emergedsecular education, especially in the North of Italycities. This was crucial, as decisive in the increased wealth emergence of Italy allowed the eliteRenaissance, such as the De Medici’s in Florence to become the patrons of great artists such as Michelangelo with its emphasis on human values and Leonardo da Vinciexperiences rather than religion.<ref> Frederick HarttBenedictow, and David G. Wilkins, ''History of Italian Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture'' (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003)2004, p 67. 134 </ref>

Initially in Italy the plague led to a revival in religion among many====Questioning of authority====[[File:Petrarch_by_Bargilla. jpg|thumbnail|left|175px|Petrarch- poet and scholar]]The middle ages world was a time when people believed that events are a result of God’s willturned upside down by the Black Death. Many viewed the plague as a punishment for God for the wickedness and immorality The mental outlook of the peoplechanged dramatically. There was an upsurge in religious observance and many sections of the public became swept by a religious fervourPreviously, as many sincerely believed that the Black Death was a sign people assumed that the end of the world was coming<ref> Benedictow, 2004, p. 234</ref>. Religious fanaticism spread throughout the peninsula fixed and many men and women performed in extreme religious practices, such as the flagellantsGod-ordained. The flagellants whipped themselves into a frenzy to atone for their sinsBlack Death overturned old certainties. The Church suffered greatly during As we have seen the plague, many priests and especially monks diedits devastation undermined religious orthodoxy and beliefs. The monasteries proved ideal breeding grounds for People at the plague while many priests contracted time were no longer willing to accept the sickness as they gave status quo. This change manifested in the last rites to numerous political revolts of the dying time.<ref> Benedictow, 2004, p. 234174</ref>. The result was a shortage most famous of trained monks and priests. To deal with this these, led by the Church hastily trained new monks poor workers and priests to serve the spiritual needs of weavers called popularly the communityCiompi, still coming to terms with the trauma of the Black Death. This meant that many unsuitable individuals became clerics and this led to a drop took place in standards among parish priests, Florence in particular<ref> Hays, 1997, p. 178 </ref>. The Church became corrupt and gradually over time lost the respect of many believers1378. In the short term the Black Death strengthened the Catholic Church in Italy but in the long runFor four years, an increasingly corrupt institution meant that many people lost their faith. This led to the increasing secularisation of Italian society as many increasingly turned away from poor formed the church in disgust as the worldliness government of prelates and priests. The contempt that many felt is evident in the stories of Boccaccio of venal and depraved priests, monks and nuns <ref> Boccaccio, 1987, p 67, 113</ref>city. The church had traditionally monopolised education but after the Black Death, there revolt was more secular education, especially one of several in Italy at the citiestime. This was decisive in No longer are people as willing to question the emergence old ways of the Renaissance, with its emphasis on human values doing things and experiences rather than religion <ref> Benedictow, 2004, p. 134 </ref>no longer accepted things because they were sanctioned by tradition.

==Questioning of authority==[[File:Petrarch_by_Bargilla.jpg|thumbnail|175px|Petrarch- poet and scholar]]The world was turned upside down by the Black Death. The mental outlook of people changed dramatically. Previously, people assumed that the world was fixed and God-ordained. The Black Death overturned old certainties. As we have seen religious orthodoxy and beliefs were undermined by the plague and its devastation. People at the time were no longer willing to accept the status quo. This is best seen in the political revolts of the time. <ref>Benedictow, 2004, p. 174</ref> The most famous of these, that of poor workers and weavers called popularly the Ciompi, that took place in Florence in 1378. For four years, the poor formed the government of the city. The revolt was one of several in Italy at the time. No longer are people as willing to question the old ways of doing things and no longer accepted things because they were sanctioned by tradition. The Black Death led to a great questioning of the old certainties. This led many, especially among the urban elite to use reason to understand the world. They also increasingly turned to the classics to find answers to the problems of life. The new spirit of inquiry helped to ignite the Renaissance, especially in politics and philosophy .<ref> Ruggiero, Guido. ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0521719380/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0521719380&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=a042e34611daa82f83ef52dd3ac08b6c The Renaissance in Italy: A Social and Cultural History of the Rinascimento]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2015), p 648</ref>. However, that is not to say, that Italy rejected all traditions, it was still a very conservative society in many ways. However, those who questioned authority and the received wisdom, such as the Poet and Scholar Petrarch inspired the Humanist movement, which valued reason and critical thinking. The Humanist are essential in the development and progress of the Renaissance. <ref>Burkhardt, 1878, p. 67</ref>

====Cultural Change====[[File:Botticelli-primavera.jpg|thumbnail|left| Primevera by Botticelli]]Initially, the Black Death led to a fascination with death among many Italians. The loss of life and the suffering led many to become obsessed with death.<ref> Herlihy, D., ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674076133/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0674076133&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=ed19d965a5f4e3c1389be15f87195a5d The Black Death and the Transformation of the West]'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997) p. 116</ref> The Dance of Death was a popular motif in art and architecture at this time. The general mood was one of pessimism , and indeed many expected that sooner or later that the world would end. Alongside this fear of death and the general mood of pessimism, there was a desire to experience the pleasures of life and to seize any happiness that was on offer. This contradictory impact of the Black Death on the culture of the time can be seen in the writings of two of the greatest figures in European literature, Petrarch and Boccaccio.<ref>Benedictow, 2004, p. 173 </ref> These two writers at times wrote in despair about the human condition yet they also wrote about the joys of life and the beauties of nature.

This sense that life was fleeting and that every happiness should be seized, led many Italians to seek solace in art and literature and this was one of the factors in the development of the Renaissance. Many of the elite were eager to enjoy the pleasures of life , and this led them to patronize artists. It also resulted in a shift in the themes of artists.<ref> Pullan, 1973, p. 173 </ref>. Religious topics remained popular, however, there was also a fascination with secular themes, especially from the classical world. The new interest in secular subjects can be seen in a comparison between Giotto and Botticelli. Giotto painted almost exclusively religious paintings. While Giotto, painted both secular and religious themes, indeed he is best known for his secular works as in masterpieces such as Primavera .<ref> Hayden B. J. Maginnis, ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0271020911/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0271020911&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=390ba05b8bf7168c013a8c5bf3d77d84 Painting in the Age of Giotto: A Historical RevaluationReevaluation]''(Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1997), p. 78 </ref>.

====Social Mobility====The plague disrupted society to an unprecedented state. It overturned the existing social structure. Previous, to the outbreak of the plague, Italy was a rigid and stratified society. The Black Death changed everything. Increasingly, because of the demographic disaster caused by the plague were able to take advantage of the opportunities caused by the high death rate. In the period after the Black Death, an unprecedented amount of social mobility took place. Labourers Laborers became merchants and merchants become members of the nobility. No longer was a person’s destiny to be fixed by their birth. Previously, people assumed that one’s station was fixed at one’s birth and that one had to remain a member of the class you were born into.<ref> Benedictow, 2004, p. 73 </ref> People believed that a peasant would always be a peasant, an aristocrat, and aristocrat. Italians, like other peoples, in Europe, believed that one’s birth determined one’s future and that this was determined by God.<ref>Pullan, 1973, p. 123 </ref> However, as social mobility became more widespread because of the Black Death, many people, came to believe that a person’s merits or abilities were what mattered and not one’s birth.<ref>Benedictow, 2004, p. 174 </ref> This led to a growing individualism in Italian society. This, in turn, encouraged people to strive and to develop their talents and achieve excellence or virtue.<ref>Burkhardt, 1878, p. 78</ref> The belief in the individual was central to the Renaissance and it inspired many of the greatest artists, architects, sculptures and writers, the world have ever seen to create peerless works.

==Decline However, as social mobility became more widespread because of the Nobility==One group that was adversely impacted by the Black Death was the nobility. This was also the case in many other European regions and kingdoms. The nobility suffered as greatly as , many others classes as a result of the plague and many families died out during the period. In the aftermath of the plaguepeople, they found themselves in serious financial difficulties. The loss of population meant came to believe that there was no longer a great demand for their land person’s merits or abilities were what mattered and rents fellnot one’s birth.<ref>PullanBenedictow, 19732004, p. 123 174 </ref> Many of their labourers simply left the land and they were no replaced. Many of the nobility found themselves obliged to sell their serfs their freedom or This led to sell land to merchants from the cities. At this time, many wealthy merchants purchased new estates. The demise of the traditional elite meant that a new elite came to the fore, composed of merchants and self-made mengrowing individualism in Italian society. This new elite often keen to patronize arts. They were very conscious of their lack of birth and humble origins.<ref>Pullan, 1973in turn, p. 23 </ref> They were keen encouraged people to use art strive and to patronize men of letters in order to compensatedevelop their talents and achieve excellence or virtue. In order to appear the equal of the old aristocracy, they sought to sponsor artists who would win the esteem of the public<ref> Burkhardt, 1878, p. 78</ref>. This was one of the reasons for the lavish patronage of the de Medici’s The belief in Florence. They were keen patrons of the arts, in order individual was central to justify their status in society the Renaissance and to impress the general population. This meant that the great artists had it inspired many patrons, who often competed for their talents and this allowed them to concentrate on their art and to produce some of the greatest artartists, ever known.<ref> Hayden B. J. Maginnisarchitects, 1997sculptures and writers, pthe world have ever seen to create peerless works. 167 </refdiv class="portal" style='float:right; width:35%'>

==Conclusion==Related DailyHistory.org Articles====*[[Top 10 Books on the origins of the Italian Renaissance]]*[[Did the Sack of Rome in 1527 end the Renaissance in Italy?]]*[[What were the social factors that led to the Renaissance in Italy?]]*[[Why did the Italian Renaissance End?]]*[[What was the impact of Charles VIIIs invasion of Italy (1494) on the Renaissance?]]*[[How did the de Medici contribute to the Renaissance?]]</div>====Decline of the Nobility====One group that was adversely impacted by the Black Death was the nobility. This was also the case in many other European regions and kingdoms. The nobility suffered as much as many others classes as a result of the plague and many families died out during the period. In the aftermath of the epidemic, they found themselves in serious financial difficulties. The loss of population meant that there was no longer a high demand for their land and rents fell.<ref>Pullan, 1973, p. 123 </ref>

Many of their laborers simply left the land, and they were not replaced. Many of the nobility found themselves obliged to sell their serfs their freedom or to sell land to merchants from the cities. At this time, many wealthy merchants purchased new estates. The demise of the traditional elite meant that a new elite came to the fore, composed of merchants and self-made men. This new elite often keen to patronize arts. They were very conscious of their lack of birth and humble origins.<ref>Pullan, 1973, p. 23 </ref>  They were keen to use art and to patronize men of letters to compensate for the lack of traditional authority. In order to appear the equal of the old aristocracy, they sought to sponsor artists who would win the esteem of the public.<ref> Burkhardt, 1878, p. 78</ref> This was one of the reasons for the lavish patronage of the de Medici’s in Florence. They were keen patrons of the arts, to justify their status in society and to impress the general population. This meant that the great artists had many patrons, who often competed for their talents and this allowed them to concentrate on their art and to produce some of the greatest art, ever known.<ref>Hayden B. J. Maginnis, 1997, p. 167 </ref> ====Who benefitted from the Renaissance in Italy?====While the Renaissance may have laid the foundation for broad changes in Europe over the longterm, the wealthy in Italy were the primary people who benefitted during the Renaissance. While wages for agricultural workers increased after the plague arrived, wages did not increase throughout the Renaissance. Additionally in Florence, life expectancy declined for people during the Renaissance. Wealthy Italians during the Renaissance did clearly did benefit. Their wealth essentially funded the artistic achievements of the era, but most Italian peasants probably would have preferred higher wages rather than the Mona Lisa.<ref>Eleanor Janego, "[https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2020/04/10/dont-kid-yourself-black-deaths-aftermath-isnt-cause-optimism-about-covid-19/ Don’t kid yourself. The Black Death’s aftermath isn’t cause for optimism about covid-19.]" Washingington Post, April 14, 2020.</ref> ====Conclusion====The Black Death devastated Italian society in the middle of the 14th century. It led to great socio-economic, cultural and religious changes. After the initial horrors of the plague, Italian society, staged a spectacular recovery. It Italy became richer, than before. The impact of the plague reduced the influence of the Catholic Church was weakened as diminished, and the culture became more secular. The new social mobility made possible by the loss of life meant that individualism came to be respected. The Black Death was to unleash unleashed the forces in Italian society that made the Renaissance possible.{{MediaWiki:AmNative}} ====References====