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[[File: Constantinople 2.jpg|300px250px|thumb|left| The reconstructed walls of Constantinople]]The Arab siege of Constantinople in 717-718, (commonly known as the second Arab siege) is regarded as one of the most important battles in European history. This was the most determined effort by the Caliphs to conquer the Byzantine Empire. Emperor Leo III managed to defeat the besieging Muslims Muslim army and navy. This had the following important consequences it battle saved the successor state to the Roman Empire and allowed it was to continue in one form or for another for over 600 years. It ended the Arab campaign to conquer the Byzantines and helped to undermine the Umayyad Caliphate. Moreover, the Byzantine victory prevented the Muslims from entering Eastern Europe, therefore preventing the Islamization of the region. Finally, the siege also indirectly led to a religious revolution known as Iconoclasm.

====Background====The followers of Muhammad had invaded the Byzantine Empire in the mid-seventh century. The Muslims defeated the army of the Christian Emperor at the Battle of Homs. After this victory, the Arabs conquered the Byzantine territories in the Near East and North Africa. A Muslim navy and army besieged Constantinople between 674-678 in alliance with the Avars but were ultimately defeated.<ref> Treadgold, Warren T. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0804726302/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0804726302&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=82b3332950b0a9c88f488ff1ac4c672a A History of the Byzantine State and Society]</i> (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1997), p 16</ref> There then followed several decades of an uneasy peace, between the two superpowers. However, by 700 AD , the Umayyad Caliphs were at the peak of their power and ruled an Empire empire from Spain to Central Asia. They began large-scale incursions into the Byzantine heartland and also conquered the Christian allies of the Empire in the Caucuses.

<a target="_blank" href="">A History By the early years of the 8th century, the Umayyad Caliph was preparing for the final destruction of the Byzantine State Christian Empire. Constantinople was the key, and Societythe Arabs knew that they had to capture the city if they were to conquer the successor of Rome.</aref>Treadgold, p. 87<img src="//ir-naref> Byzantine had been severely weakened by a series of civil wars, and its eastern defenses were crumbling.amazon-adsystemThe Arabs launched a combined land and sea invasion in 716 AD.com/e/ir?t=dailyh0c-20&l=am2&o=1& They followed a=0804726302" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" />coastal route and bypassed many Christian strongholds. To ease the conquest, they encouraged one of the governors in Anatolia to revolt and claimed the throne. The reigning Byzantine Emperor abdicated rather than plunge the Empire into another civil war. The rebel governor became Emperor Leo III and is popularly known as Leo the Isaurian. He had agreed with the Arabs that he would become the vassal of the Umayyad Caliph if he became Emperor. Leo III did not keep his end of the bargain and was determined to keep Byzantine independent and Christian. Enraged, Caliph Umar II ordered his massive army and navy to the vast walls of Constantinople.

By ==Why was Constantinople attacked?==[[File: Siege of Con Two.jpg|350px|thumb|left|A manuscript showing the early years of Bulgars attacking the 8th centuryArabs in 718]]In Autumn 717, the Umayyad Caliph was preparing for Umar II ordered his brother Masalama to besiege Constantinople. He led an army of 80,000 and a fleet of some two hundred ships, mostly oared galleys.<ref>Davis, Paul K. "Constantinople: August 717–15 August 718" <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0195143663/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0195143663&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=af9472455d3cb5895f9d3b9f349c6f4a 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the final destruction of Present]</i> (Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2001). pp. 99–102</ref> The Caliph personally directed the Christian Empireattack from Damascus. Constantinople Leo III was the keyan experienced soldier, and he had strengthened the Arabs knew that they walls of the city and had stockpiled supplies. He ordered any civilian who did not have three years supply of food to capture leave the city if they were . The Byzantine navy was able to conquer keep the Bosporus open despite the successor continued efforts of Romethe Arab fleet to blockade the waterway and cut off the city from the Black Sea. The Christian navy had a secret weapon, and this was ‘Greek Fire.’ <ref>TreadgoldDavis, p. 87100</ref> Byzantine had been severely weekend by This was a series of civil wars and its eastern defenses were crumblingflammable liquid that could be directed upon the enemy with devastating effects. The Arabs launched Byzantines similarly used Greek Fire to a combined land and sea invasion in 716 ADmodern flamethrower. They followed a coastal route and by-passed  This weapon allowed the Christian ships to destroy many Christian strongholdsArab galleys. To ease The Byzantines received regular supplies by sea, but the conquestArabs suffered great hardship, they encouraged one of the governors especially in Anatolia to revolt and claim the thronewinter. The reigning Byzantine Emperor abdicated rather than plunge Caliph sent reinforcements from Egypt. Despite many assaults, the Arabs could not breach the Empire into another civil warwalls of Constantinople. The rebel governor became Emperor Leo III and is popularly known as Leo then entered an alliance with the Bulgars, a Turkish people who had established a powerful kingdom on the Isaurianborders of Byzantium. He had <ref>Davis, p. 101</ref> They agreed with to attack the Arabs that if he became Emperor that he would become Arab forces besieging the vassal capital of the Umayyad CaliphChristian Empire, in return for payments of gold. Leo III did not keep his end  In the summer of 718 AD, the bargain Bulgars attacked the Arabs and was determined to keep Byzantine independent destroyed a 5000-strong foraging party. The Umayyad forces were almost trapped between the walls of Constantinople and Christianthe Bulgars. Enraged the The Caliph Umar II ordered his massive army and a retreat from Constantinople, but the Bulgar Khan's forces massacred some 30,000 Muslim soldiers before they could board the ships. The Byzantine navy to pursued the vast walls of ConstantinopleMuslim navy and destroyed many galleys. Many more Muslim ships were lost in a storm.<ref>Davis, p.101</ref>

====The Siege Byzantium and the Arabs: Balance of Constantinople==Power==[[File: Siege of Con Twothree.jpg|350px250px|thumb|left|A manuscript showing the Bulgars attacking the Arabs in 718Greek Fire being used against Arab ships]]In Autumn 717 The siege was a complete victory for Leo III and the Caliph Umar II ordered his brother Masalama Christian Empire. Moreover, he had saved the Byzantine Empire. He had displayed extraordinary leadership and had inspired the defenders to besiege Constantinopleresist the repeated assaults on the city's walls. He led an and his navy and army of 80were heavily outnumbered by the Arabs,000 and a fleet of some but Leo's tactics kept the Muslims at bay for two hundred ships, mostly oared galleysyears.<ref> Davis If the Umayyad forces had captured the city known as the New Rome, Paul Kthe Byzantine Empire would have almost certainly collapsed. "Constantinople: August 717–15 August 718"was the focal point of the Empire. 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times The bureaucracy in the city helped to keep the very diverse Empire together. At the same time, the metropolis was at the center of the extensive trade network that bound the Empire together. Moreover, the city was the military and naval stronghold of the Present (Oxfordsprawling Byzantine realms. If Constantinople had fallen, United Kingdom: Oxford University Pressthe Empire would have been left defenseless.  The defeat of the Arabs outside the walls of ‘New Rome’ saved the Empire from almost certain destruction. Indeed, 2001)such was the enormity of the defeat suffered by the Muslims that they never again attempted to conquer Constantinople. pp<ref> Treadwell, p. 99–102167</ref> The Caliph personally directed the attack from Damascus. Leo III was an experienced soldier heirs of Umar II and he had strengthened the walls later Abbasid dynasty never seriously considered another siege of the city and had stockpiled suppliesgreat Christian metropolis. He ordered any civilian who did not have three years supply of food The Arabs continued to raid Christian territory but no longer posed an existential to leave the cityByzantium.  These raids concentrated on securing booty rather than territory. The Byzantine navy Umayyad army was able weakened after the siege, and Leo III began to retake territories lost to keep the Bosporus open despite continued efforts of the Arab Muslims. The Muslim fleet to blockade the waterway had been destroyed at Constantinople, and it never recovered, and cut off the city from Byzantine regained their old supremacy at sea. The defeat of the Black SeaArabs in 718 A. The D can be seen as the beginning of a new era for the Christian navy had a secret weaponEmpire, which saw it expand its territory, economy, and this was ‘Greek Firecultural and religious influence.’ <ref> DavisTreadwell, p. 100145</ref> This was a flammable liquid that could be directed upon the enemy with devastating effects. The Byzantines used Greek Fire in a similar manner to a modern flamethrower.

This weapon allowed ==The future of Europe==[[File:Siege of con four.jpg|250px|thumb|left| A coin with the portrait of Leo III]]The Byzantine Empire was resisted Muslim attacks until its fall in 1453. It has been described as the Christian ships to destroy bulwark of Europe by many Arab galleyshistorians. The Byzantines received regular supplies by sea, but If the Arabs suffered great hardship, especially had succeeded in winter. The Caliph sent reinforcements from Egypt. Despite many assaultscapturing the city, they could have conquered the Arabs could not breach Christian Empire and used it as the walls of Constantinoplegateway into Europe. Leo III then entered an alliance with Eastern Europe was largely tribal and pagan, but the BulgarsByzantine Church was slowly spreading its influence, a Turkish people who had established a powerful kingdom on especially in the Slav and the borders of ByzantiumBulgar realms.<ref> DavisEventually, p. 101</ref> They agreed to attack the Arab forces besieging the capital of Byzantines secured the Christian Empire, in return for payments conversion of gold. In the summer peoples of 718 AD, the Bulgars attacked the Arabs Balkans and destroyed a 5000-strong foraging partylater Russia. The Umayyad forces were almost trapped between Orthodox churches in Eastern Europe and Russia are the walls ‘daughter churches of Constantinople and the BulgarsByzantine Church. The Caliph ordered a retreat from Constantinople but during this<ref>Meyendorff, the Bulgar Khan's forces massacred some 30,000 Muslim soldiers before they could board the shipsJohn. <i>[https://www.amazon. com/gp/product/0913836907/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0913836907&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=54b9a005dc6c444f0ade105baf1f1862 The Byzantine navy pursued Legacy in the Muslim navy and destroyed many galleys, many more Muslim ships were lost in a storm.Orthodox Church]<ref/i>Davis(Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1982), p. 10119</ref>Moreover, through the influence of the Greek Orthodox Church, the culture of Constantinople was transmitted throughout Eastern Europe and Russia. This is evident in the Cyrillic Alphabet and the art of Eastern Europe in later centuries.

The defeat of However, if the Arabs outside the walls of ‘New Rome’ saved the Empirehad captured Constantinople, from this would almost certain destructioncertainly not have occurred. IndeedInstead, such was the enormity Caliph's armies would have eventually conquered many European territories, and as in their other conquests, they would have spread their Muslim faith and Arab culture. It seems likely that Russia would also have embraced Islam. If the Arab army had captured Constantinople, much of Eastern Europe and possibly Russia could have become part of the defeat suffered by the Muslims that they never again attempted to conquer ConstantinopleMuslim world.<ref> TreadwellMeyendorff, p. 167134</ref> The heirs victory of Umar II Leo III prevented the Muslims from entering the Balkans for many centuries, and when the later Abbasid dynasty never seriously considered another siege of the great Christian metropolis. The Arabs continued to raid Christian territory but no longer posed an existential to Byzantium. These raids concentrated on securing booty rather than territory. The Umayyad army Ottomans did, they found that Christianity was weakened in the aftermath entrenched, so much so that almost five centuries of the siege and Leo III began to retake territories that had been lost Muslim rule did not lead to the Muslimsregion, becoming Islamized. The Muslim fleet had been destroyed at Constantinople and it never recovered and For this reason, the Byzantine regained their old supremacy at sea. The defeat of the Arabs in 718 A.D can be seen Arab siege was as significant as the beginning Battles of a new era for Tours and Marathon in the Christian Empire which saw it expand its territory, economy and cultural and religious influence.<ref> Treadwell, phistory of Europe. 145</ref>

====The future Decline of Europe==the Umayyad Dynasty==[[File:Siege of con four.jpg|200px|thumb|left| A coin with the portrait of Leo III]]The Byzantine Empire was to resist Muslim attacks until it's fall in 1453. It has often been described as stated that the Umayyad dynasty went into decline after the bulwark unsuccessful siege of Europe by many historiansConstantinople. If There is no doubt that the Arabs Caliphs had succeeded in capturing been severely weakened on land and sea. The balance of power after the city, they could have conquered siege shifted towards the Christian Empire and used it as the gateway into EuropeByzantine. At this time Eastern Europe The Umayyad dynasty was largely tribal and pagan, but so concerned about the Byzantine Church was slowly spreading its influence, especially defeat that they considered abandoning their recent conquests in the Slav and the Bulgar realmsIberia. Eventually, the Byzantines secured the conversion The decline of the peoples of Caliphs was underlined at the Balkans and later Russia. The Orthodox churches in Eastern Europe and Russia are the ‘daughter churches’ Battle of the Byzantine Church.<ref>Meyendorff, John. The Byzantine Legacy Akroinon in the Orthodox Church (Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press740 when once again, 1982)Leo III defeated a large Arab force when he annihilated some 20, p000 soldiers. 19</ref> Moreover, through The defeat came at a difficult time for the influence of dynasty as the Greek Orthodox Church, the culture of Constantinople Empire was transmitted throughout Eastern Europe and Russia. This is evident in the Cyrillic Alphabet and in the art of Eastern Europe in later centuriesalso suffering from fiscal challenges.

HoweverThe blow to Umayyad prestige was significant, if and many zealous Muslims claimed that the defeats were because of the impiety of the Arabs had been able Caliphs. This culminated in a series of revolts that ultimately led to capture the Abbasid Revolution when the Umayyads were deposed, and almost the entire family massacred. The defeat of the Umayyads before the walls of Constantinople this would almost certainly not have occurredhelped to undermine the dynasty. InsteadHowever, the Caliphs armies would have eventually conquered many European territories and as were also weakened by a series of defeats in their other conquests, they would have spread their Muslim faith central Asia and Arab culturethe Caucuses. It seems likely cannot be denied that Russia would also have embraced Islam. If the Arab army had captured failure of Umar II to take Constantinople much of Eastern Europe was a factor in the decline and possibly Russia could have become part the fall of the Muslim worldsecond Caliphate.<ref> MeyendorffHawting, pG.R. 134<i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0415240735/ref> =as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0415240735&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=06d75c26844fff0201735e07b03465a7 The victory First Dynasty of Leo III prevented the Muslims from entering the Balkans for many centuries and when the Ottomans didIslam: The Umayyad Caliphate, they found that Christianity was entrenchedAD 661–750]</i> (London, so much soRutledge, that almost five centuries of Muslim rule did not lead to the region2000), becoming Islamized. For this reason, the defeat of the Arab siege was as significant as the Battles of Tours and Marathon in the history of Europep.201</ref>

==Leo III and Iconoclasm==Decline of After his victory against the Umayyad Dynasty====It has often been stated that Muslims, the Umayyad dynasty went into decline after Emperor was viewed as the unsuccessful siege savior of Constantinople. There is no doubt that the Caliphs had been severely weakened on land Christian world, and his reign began a long and seaoften successful fightback against the Arabs. The defeat came at Leo established a difficult time for the successful dynasty as , the Empire was also suffering from fiscal challengesIsaurian (717-802). The balance of power after He used his popularity to reform the siege shifted towards bureaucracy, the Byzantinetax system and reclaimed Sicily from a usurper. The Umayyad dynasty Leo was so concerned in from the wake eastern part of the defeat that Empire, which bordered Arab territories, influenced by Islamic theology, especially concerning its prohibition on representations of the considered abandoning their recent conquests divine image because it was idolatrous.<ref> Haldon, John F. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/052131917X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=052131917X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=6842a4ec7c5dd1b5d90fa5f0351fa77b Byzantium in Iberia. the Seventh Century: The decline Transformation of a Culture]</i> (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990),p. 56</ref> Many, including Leo, from the Caliphs was underlined at east, came to believe that the Battle worship of Akroinon religious icons, in 740 when once again Leo III defeated a large Arab force when he annihilated some 20particular,000 soldierswas idolatry and it was argued by the iconoclasts that this had led to God almost abandoning the Christian Empire.

The blow to Umayyad prestige was significant and many zealous Muslims claimed that the defeats were because of the impiety of victory over the Caliphs. This culminated Arabs in a series of revolts that ultimately led to the Abbasid Revolution when the Umayyads were deposed and almost the entire family massacred718 A. The defeat of the Umayyads before the walls of Constantinople helped to undermine the dynasty. However, they Caliphs had D was also been weakened by a series of defeats in central Asia and in victory for the CaucusesIconoclast party. It cannot be denied The Isaurian Emperor believed that the failure of Umar II to take Constantinople his victory was a factor in sign that God favored Iconoclasm. In 730 AD, he prohibited the decline use of icons and the fall of the second Caliphatetheir production, claiming they were idolatrous.<ref>HawtingHaldon, Gp.R15</ref> This divided the Empire as Greek speakers favored icons while Christians in the East supported iconoclasm. The first dynasty of Islam: Those who defied the Umayyad caliphatedecree on icons were persecuted, AD 661–750 (Londonoften brutally. It also led to the destruction of many priceless works of art, Rutledgeespecially icons and statues, 2000), pand Byzantine culture was much impoverished by Leo’s religious intolerance. Iconoclasm was to destabilize the Empire until the mid-9th century when iconoclasm was finally defeated. 201</ref>

====Leo III and Iconoclasm==Conclusion==The Emperor after his victory against failure of Umar II to capture the Muslims Christian metropolis of Constantinople was viewed as the saviour of immense historical significance. The siege weakened the Christian world Umayyad dynasty in Damascus and his reign began a long and often successful fightback against the Arabscontributed to their demise. Leo established a very successful dynasty, Because the Isaurian (717-802). He used his popularity Christian Emperor was able to reform withstand the bureaucracyMuslim army, the tax system and reclaimed Sicily from a usurper. Leo was from the eastern part future of the Byzantine Empirewas secure, that bordered Arab territories, which and it even expanded and was influenced by Islamic theology, especially with regard to its prohibition on representations survive until the 15th century. The defeat of the Umayyads also prevented the expansion of Islam into Eastern Europe when the divine image, because it was idolotrousSlavs and other peoples could have been susceptible to the influence of Islam.<ref> HaldonBecause Leo III had defeated the Muslims, John Fhe kept them out of Eastern Europe for several hundred years. Byzantium This allowed the region to become Orthodox Christian in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990),pfaith and culture. 56</ref> ManyFinally, including Leo, from the east, came to believe that III interpreted his victory as divine approval for the worship doctrine of religious iconsIconoclasm, in particular, was idolatry and it was argued by the iconoclasts that this had led to God almost abandoning which convulsed the Christian Empirefor over a century.

The victory over the Arabs in 718 ====Suggested Readings====* Kaldelis, Anthony, [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0190625945/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0190625945&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=8b8e1285dfa849ad5f453fa35d1f89f6 ACabinet of Byzantine Curiosities: Strange Tale of Surprising Facts from History's Most Orthodox Empire] (Oxford University Press, 2017)* Hawting, G.D was also a victory for the Iconoclast partyR. <i>[https://www.amazon. com/gp/product/0415240735/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0415240735&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=06d75c26844fff0201735e07b03465a7 The Isaurian Emperor believed that his victory was a sign that God favoured Iconoclasm. In 730 AD he prohibited the use First Dynasty of icons and their productionIslam: The Umayyad Caliphate, claiming they were idolatrous.AD 661–750]<ref/i> (London, Rutledge, 2000)* Haldon, pJohn F. 15 <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/052131917X/ref> This divided =as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=052131917X&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=6842a4ec7c5dd1b5d90fa5f0351fa77b Byzantium in the Empire as Greek speakers were in favour Seventh Century: The Transformation of icons while Christians in the East supported iconoclasm. Those who defied the decree on icons were persecuteda Culture]</i> (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990)* Meyendorff, often brutallyJohn. It also led to the destruction of many priceless works of art, especially icons and statues and Byzantine culture was much impoverished by Leo’s religious intolerance<i>[https://www. Iconoclasm was to destabilize the Empire until the mid-9th century, when iconoclasm was finally defeatedamazon. com/gp/product/0913836907/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=Conclusion9325&creativeASIN=0913836907&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=54b9a005dc6c444f0ade105baf1f1862 The failure of Umar II to capture Byzantine Legacy in the Christian metropolis of Orthodox Church]</i> (Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1982)* Davis, Paul K. "Constantinople was of immense historical significance: August 717–15 August 718" <i>[https://www. Because the Christian Emperor was able to withstand the Muslim army the future of the Byzantine Empire was secure, and it even expanded and was to survive until the 15th centuryamazon. The defeat of the Umayyad’s also prevented the expansion of Islam into Eastern Europe at a time when the Slavs and other peoples could have been susceptible com/gp/product/0195143663/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0195143663&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=af9472455d3cb5895f9d3b9f349c6f4a 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the influence of Islam. Because Leo III had defeated the Muslims he kept them out of Eastern Europe for several hundred years and this allowed the region to become Orthodox Christian in faith and culture. The siege weakened the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus and contributed to their demise. FinallyPresent]</i> (Oxford, Leo III interpreted his victory as divine approval for the doctrine of IconoclasmUnited Kingdom: Oxford University Press, which convulsed the Empire for over a century.2001)