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[[File: Cleopatra_VII.jpg|300px250px|thumbnail|left|Bust of Cleopatra]]Cleopatra is perhaps one of the most recognized names of all ancient personalities. She is known as a clever temptress who helped reignite the Roman Civil Wars and oversaw the collapse of the Ptolemaic-Egyptian kingdom. Her life and death has been portrayed in fictionalized accounts on both the big and small screens, most notably in the 1963 film <i>Cleopatra</i> and more recently in the HBO series <i>Rome</i>. The real Cleopatra was much more complex than how she is often depicted: she ruled Egypt with the power of a king during a period when rulership was often a male prerogative. It is true that Cleopatra played a pivotal role in the last phase of the Roman Civil Wars, but in the final analysis it is clear that she was as much as a “player” with her own agency as Mark Antony or Octavian. Perhaps one of the more fascinating and controversial aspects of Cleopatra’s life is her death. After Cleopatra’s and Mark Antony’s forces lost to Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, the pair had few options. Mark Antony took his life in true Roman fashion by stabbing himself with his gladius, while Cleopatra was said to have either died from the bite of a venomous snake or some other type of poison. An examination of the classical sources combined with more recent studies indicates that Cleopatra more than likely did die from a venomous snake bite.

===The Ptolemies of Egypt===__NOTOC__[[FileCleopatra (Cleopatra VII Philoptor: Pompey’sPillarII51 BCE - 30 BCE) was the Ptolemaic Dynasty's last ruler after she committed suicide.jpg|300px|thumbnail|left|Pompey’s Pillar in Alexandria]]After Cleopatra was the Macedonian general and conqueror Alexander III “the Great” died in 323 BCPtomley ruler, his generals divided the spoils but she was also connected romantically to two of the former Achaemenid Persian Empire. While the generalsmost Romans in history, known as the <i>Diadochi</i> were fighting for control of Greece Julius Caesar and Anatolia, Ptolemy I (ruled 305-282 BC) quietly became the king of EgyptMarc Antony. After he defeated another Macedonian general named Perdiccas for possession of Alexander’s body and control of Egyptreigniting the Roman Civil Wars, he she committed suicide when she was no longer threatened 20 years old to avoid being paraded around Rome by his kinsmen and was able to start Octavian as a new dynasty in Egypt comprised entirely of Macedonian Greekstrophy. <ref> Bowman, Alan K. <i>Egypt after the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642 from Alexander to the Arab Conquest.</i> (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1996), p. 22</ref> Ptolemy I established many of the cultural attributes that were representative of Ptolemaic Egypt and While it was during his reign is well known that the city of Alexandria was first built. Although he remained thoroughly Greek and never learned the Egyptian language, his coronation and some of the more impressive aspects of his reign were commemorated on the “Satrap Stela,” which was an Egyptian language text. <ref> Chauveau, Michael. <i>Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society under the Ptolemies.</i> Translated by David Lorton. (Ithacacommitted suicide, New York: Cornell University Press, 2000), p. 38</ref> The stela was an example there has been a great deal of debate about how the Ptolemies were willing to accept some features of traditional Egyptian culture on the outside while still remaining members of the Hellenistic world at their coreshe killed herself.

Ptolemies successors would go on to make Alexandria a cultural magnet She is known as it was a city where some of clever temptress who helped reignite the Roman Civil Wars and oversaw the greatest scholars collapse of the Hellenistic world traveled to Ptolemaic-Egyptian kingdom. Her life and death have been portrayed in order to establish themselves in their respective fields, including history, science, philosophy, fictionalized accounts on both the big and art. Although built on Egyptian soil, Alexandria was essentially a Greek citysmall screens, which was due most notably in large part to large scale Greek immigration to the city during the first 100 years of Ptolemaic rule. 1963 film <refi> Bowman, p. 122Cleopatra</refi> The result was that Alexandria looked and more like a Greek city with a veneer of Egyptian influence, while the rest of Egypt continued on as it had for centuries. Citizenship followed the Greek model, but a tripartite legal system developed where lawsuits, marriage customs, and criminal laws were followed according to membership recently in one of the three major ethnic communities: Greek, Egyptian, and Jewish. HBO series <refi> Bowman, pgs. 124-125Rome</refi> Along . The real Cleopatra was much more complex than how she is often depicted: she ruled Egypt with the political alterations the Ptolemies brought to Egypt, there were also significant cultural changes that took place. Later, a king's power during a period when the Romans took control of Egypt they continued the trend by building amphitheaters and other public monuments such as Pompey’s Pillar, which is dated to the third century ADrulership was often a male prerogative.

Roman influence in Ptolemaic Egypt began Cleopatra indeed played a pivotal role in the early second century BClast phase of the Roman Civil Wars. During that periodStill, the Roman Republic was fresh off its victory over Carthage in the Second Punic War and the Hellenistic successor states were involved in internecine fighting for control of the east. Under King Ptolemy VI (reigned 180-145 BC)final analysis, Ptolemaic Egypt became embroiled in she was as much a war “player” with the Hellenistic successor kingdom known her own agency as Mark Antony or Octavian. Perhaps one of the Seleucid Empire, which was led by Antiochus IV (ruled 175-164 BC)more fascinating and controversial aspects of Cleopatra’s life is her death. The war, known as After Cleopatra’s and Mark Antony’s forces lost to Octavian at the Sixth Syrian War (170-168 Battle of Actium in 31 BC), was the last one between the two kingdoms and although the Seleucids technically won when he successfully invaded Egypt and proclaimed pair had few options. Mark Antony took his life in true Roman fashion by stabbing himself pharaohwith his gladius, they were forced while Cleopatra was said to leave when have either died from the Romans intervenedbite of a venomous snake or some other type of poison. According to An examination of the second century AD Roman historian Dio, Antiochus IV knew better classical sources combined with more recent studies indicates that Cleopatra more than to challenge the Romans:likely did die from a venomous snake bite.

“In a campaign directed against Egypt he conquered the greater part of the country and spent some time in besieging Alexandria. When the rest sought refuge with == Why did the Romans, Popilius was sent to Antiochus and bade him keep his hands off Ptolemy Family rule Egypt; for the brothers, comprehending the designs of Antiochus, had become reconciled. When the latter was for putting off his reply, Popilius drew a circle about him with his staff and demanded that he deliberate and answer standing where he was. Antiochus then in fear raised the siege.” <ref> Cassius Dio. <i> Roman History.</i> Translated by Earnest Cary. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1954), XX, 9, 25</ref>? ==

===Cleopatra in Power===[[File: Dendera_Cesarion.jpg|300px|thumbnail|right|Relief from After the Temple of Dendera in Egypt Depicting Cleopatra VII Macedonian general and Caesarion/Ptolemy XV Offering to the Egyptian Goddess Hathor]]The Cleopatra conqueror Alexander III “the Great” died in question here was actually 323 BC, his generals divided the seventh member spoils of the Ptolemaic Dynasty to take former Achaemenid Persian Empire. While the generals, known as the name. Cleopatra came to power when her long-ruling but mostly ineffective father <i>Diadochi</i>, were fighting for control of Greece and Anatolia, Ptolemy XII I (ruled 80305-51 282 BC) declared before quietly became the king of Egypt. After he died that defeated another Macedonian general named Perdiccas for possession of Alexander’s body and control of Egypt, he desired was no longer threatened by his oldest daughter, Cleopatra VII, kinsmen and oldest son, Ptolemy XIII, was able to co-rule as king and queen. The rule would require that the offspring marry, which was start a practice initiated by the second Ptolemaic king, Ptolemy II (reigned 284-246 BC), and continued until the end new dynasty in Egypt comprised entirely of the dynastyMacedonian Greeks. <ref> Bowman, pAlan K. 24<i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520205316/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520205316&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=3652d49207aeab2b3aaed7a4b330fb4 Egypt after the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642 from Alexander to the Arab Conquest].</i> When Ptolemy XII died(Los Angeles: University of California Press, Cleopatra VII was sixteen and Ptolemy XIII was only twelve1996), which meant that there was bound to be plenty of court intriguep.22</ref>

It took little time before Ptolemy XIII I established many of the cultural attributes that were representative of Ptolemaic Egypt, and it was during his advisorsreign that the city of Alexandria was first built. Although he remained thoroughly Greek and never learned the Egyptian language, who his coronation and some of his reign's more impressive aspects were no doubt pulling commemorated on the strings“Satrap Stela, decided Cleopatra VII ” which was no longer needed so she was expelled from Egyptan Egyptian language text. <ref> Chauveau, Michael. <i>[https://www. It was at that point that Egypt became a major theater of operations during the Roman Civil Warsamazon. The general Pompey fled to com/gp/product/0801485762/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0801485762&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=cf8066cf62dfe75be15daa7391c84dc8 Egypt after his defeat to Julius Caesar at in the Battle Age of Pharsalus in 48 BC; but instead of being welcomed in Egypt, Pompey was murdered, which gave Caesar the pretense to enter Alexandria with his legions to make Cleopatra VII : History and Society under the sole ruler of Egypt in 47 BCPtolemies]. <ref/i> ChauveauTranslated by David Lorton. (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2000), p. 2438</ref>The stela was an example of how the Ptolemies were willing to accept some features of traditional Egyptian culture on the outside while remaining members of the Hellenistic world at their core.

At that point, Cleopatra Ptolemy's successors would make Alexandria a cultural magnet as it was clearly more a city where some of an Egyptian than a Macedonian ruler. The idea the greatest scholars of a woman ruling alone was rare the Hellenistic world traveled to establish themselves in ancient Egypttheir respective fields, but not totally unheard ofincluding history, with at least three known examples before Cleopatrascience, the best one being Hatshepsut (ruled caphilosophy, 1478-1458 BC)and art. Hatshepsut adopted the titulary of kingship in texts and Although built on Egyptian soil, Alexandria was shown with the accoutrements of kingship in artistic depictionsessentially a Greek city, leaving no doubt to modern scholars that she which was due in fact large part to a “king” in large scale Greek immigration to the city during the pharaonic sensefirst 100 years of Ptolemaic rule. <ref> Robins, Gay. <i>Women in Ancient Egypt.</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993)Bowman, p. 46122</ref> There is no evidence to suggest The result was that Cleopatra consciously followed Hatshepsut’s example, or if she even knew about her illustrious predecessor, but there is little doubt that she also assumed all of the prerogatives Alexandria looked more like a Greek city with a veneer of an ancient Egyptian kinginfluence, much like Hatshepsut. One while the rest of the first things she did was to give her full support to Caesar and Rome, which she believed would be bolstered when she gave birth to his son, Ptolemy XV/Caesarion on July 23, 47 BC. <ref> Chauveau, pEgypt continued as it had for centuries. 25</ref>

Any plan that Cleopatra may have had of ruling over Rome and Egypt at Caesar’s side was dashed when he was assassinated on Citizenship followed the Senate floor in 44 BC. His assassination led to the formation of the Second Triumvirate by OctavianGreek model, but a tripartite legal system developed where lawsuits, Mark Antonymarriage customs, and Lepidus and another round criminal laws were followed according to membership in one of the Civil Wars. After the trio achieved victory over Brutusthree major ethnic communities: Greek, they divided their spoils with Mark Antony gaining control of the allied eastern kingdomsEgyptian, which included Ptolemaic Egypt. Mark Antony and Cleopatra soon found themselves as natural allies and later as lovers: she wanted to restore the Ptolemaic Egyptian Empire and he wanted to reorganize the east into Roman provincesJewish. <ref> ChauveauBowman, ppgs. 26124-125</ref> EventuallyAlong with the political alterations the Ptolemies brought to Egypt, Octavian made his own move to conquer all Roman territory by declaring war on Cleopatrathere were also significant cultural changes. Mark Antony loyally went to war for his ally and lover but was soundly defeated by Later, when the upstart Octavian at the Battle Romans took control of Actium on September 2Egypt, 31 BC. Cleopatra VII they continued the trend by building amphitheaters and Mark Antony fled other public monuments such as Pompey’s Pillar, which is dated to Alexandria, but eleventh months later Octavian and the Roman army came callingthird century AD. <ref> Chauveau, p. 28</ref>

===Roman influence in Ptolemaic Egypt began in the early second century BC. During that period, the Roman Republic was fresh off its victory over Carthage in the Second Punic War. The Death Hellenistic successor states were involved in internecine fighting for control of Cleopatra=== [[File: M_Antoniusthe east.jpg|300px|thumbnail|right|Mark Antony]]According to Under King Ptolemy VI (reigned 180-145 BC), Ptolemaic Egypt became embroiled in a war with the Hellenistic successor kingdom known as the ancient sourcesSeleucid Empire, when Octavian’s entry into Alexandria which was imminentled by Antiochus IV (ruled 175-164 BC). The war, known as the Sixth Syrian War (170-168 BC), Mark Antony followed Roman tradition by falling on his gladius swordwas the last one between the two kingdoms. There is little controversy surrounding Although the accounts because that is what a distinguished Roman officer such as Mark Antony would have been expected to do Seleucids technically won when he successfully invaded Egypt and there is no evidence proclaimed himself pharaoh, they were forced to suggest he did otherwiseleave when the Romans intervened. Cleopatra’s death, though, has been a bit more controversial largely due According to the oldest classical account. The first second century AD Roman historian Plutarch and Cassius Dio were the last two classical historians , Antiochus IV knew better than to mention Cleopatra’s death, which they claimed was the result of a snake bite, but challenge the earliest reference was made by the first century BC Greek geographer, Strabo. The account gives two possibilities for Cleopatra’s deathRomans:

“Augustus Caesar honoured this place because it was here that “In a campaign directed against Egypt, he conquered in battle those who came out against him with Antony; the greater part of the country and when he had taken spent some time besieging Alexandria. When the city at rest sought refuge with the first onsetRomans, he forced Antony Popilius was sent to put himself to death Antiochus and Cleopatra came into bade him keep his power alive; but a little later she too put herself to death secretlyhands off Egypt, for the brothers, while in prisoncomprehending Antiochus's designs, by had become reconciled. When the bite of an asp or (latter was for two accounts are given) by applying putting off his reply, Popilius drew a poisonous ointment; circle about him with his staff and the result demanded that he deliberate and answer standing where he was that the empire of the sons of Lagus. Antiochus then, which had endured for many yearsin fear, was dissolvedraised the siege.” <ref> StraboCassius Dio. <i>GeographyRoman History.</i> Translated by Horace Leonard JonesEarnest Cary. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 20011954), Book XVIIXX, 19, 1025</ref>

All modern scholars agree that == When did Cleopatra took her own life rule Egypt? ==[[File: Dendera_Cesarion.jpg|250px|left|thumbnail|Relief from the Temple of Dendera in some fashion. If Egypt Depicting Cleopatra would have surrendered VII and Caesarion/Ptolemy XV Offering to Octavian, she would have been brought back to Rome as a prisoner, probably tortured, and then more than likely ritually strangled in a public spectacle. A pharaoh would never suffer such indignities so there is little doubt that she committed suicide, but the question remains, which method did she use? Some scholars believe that the poison theory is attractive and point out that according to later ancient sources she was well-schooled in poison lore. <ref> Scarborough, John. “Cleopatra’s Asp.” <i>Pharmacy in History.</i> 37 (1995) p. 33</ref>Egyptian Goddess Hathor]]

Logic would dictate, though, that it would have been easier for The Cleopatra in question here was actually the seventh member of the Ptolemaic Dynasty to commit suicide by snake bite than through ingesting poisontake the name. Getting the right poison may have been difficult Cleopatra came to do while under guard, power when her long-ruling but there were plenty of poisonous snakes around Egypt at the time. Also, there is the symbolic importance of an Egyptian ruler dying from a snake bite mostly ineffective father Ptolemy XII (ruled 80-51 BC) declared before he died that should be considered. Along with being knowledgeable on medicinal topicshe desired his oldest daughter, Cleopatra was the only VII, and oldest son, Ptolemy who could speak the Egyptian language XIII, to co-rule as king and by all accounts she was well-versed in all aspects of pharaonic culture. <ref> Bowman, pqueen. 24</ref> Because of this knowledge, she The rule would have known require that the <i>uraeus</i>offspring marry, a cobra often depicted on crowns in Egyptian statuary, was a sign of kingship. During practice initiated by the second Ptolemaic Periodking, Ptolemy II (reigned 284-246 BC), and continued until the end of the double <i>ureaus</i> became particularly popular in statuary and reliefsdynasty. <ref> GriffithsBowman, J. Gwyn. “The Death of Cleopatra VII.” <i>Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.</i> 47 (1961) p. 11824</ref> Due to these factorsWhen Ptolemy XII died, Griffiths argued in his article that Cleopatra probably wore a crown with the double <i>uraeus</i> VII was sixteen, and Ptolemy XIII was only twelve, which meant that when she committed suicide she did so with two cobras that were brought there was bound to her in a basket containing figs, as Plutarch mentioned in his accountbe plenty of court intrigue. <ref> Griffiths, p. 118</ref>

===Conclusion===It took little time before Ptolemy XIII and his advisors, who were undoubtedly pulling strings, decided Cleopatra VII was truly no longer needed, so she was expelled from Egypt. It was at that point that Egypt became a remarkable woman who influenced major theater of operations during the Roman Civil Wars. The general Pompey fled to Egypt after his defeat to Julius Caesar at the course Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC; but instead of history being welcomed in the ancient world. Although she demonstrated incredible guile and intelligenceEgypt, Cleopatra is unfortunately remembered best for her more tabloidesque affairs and situationsPompey was murdered, one of them being which gave Caesar the manner of her death. There is no doubt that pretense to enter Alexandria with his legions to make Cleopatra died by her own hands, which was more than likely done through VII the venom sole ruler of a snakeEgypt in 47 BC. <ref> Chauveau, or snakes; but until more evidence is uncovered there will be some who believe she ingested a pharmaceutical poisonp. 24</ref>

<dh-ad/> == Why did Cleopatra ally with Julius Caesar? ==At that point, Cleopatra was clearly more of an Egyptian than a Macedonian ruler. The idea of a woman ruling alone was rare in ancient Egypt, but not totally unheard of, with at least three known examples before Cleopatra, the best one being Hatshepsut (ruled ca, 1478-1458 BC). Hatshepsut adopted the titulary of kingship in texts and was shown with the accouterments of kingship in artistic depictions, leaving no doubt to modern scholars that she was, in fact, a “king” in the pharaonic sense. <ref> Robins, Gay. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674954696/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0674954696&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=6b94f30f49ec6e295d5ca206d6b8ce3b Women in Ancient Egypt].</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 46</ref>  There is no evidence to suggest that Cleopatra consciously followed Hatshepsut’s example, or if she even knew about her illustrious predecessor. Still, there is little doubt that she also assumed all of the prerogatives of an ancient Egyptian king, much like Hatshepsut. One of the first things she did was give her full support to Caesar and Rome, which she believed would be bolstered when she gave birth to his son, Ptolemy XV/Caesarion, on July 23, 47 BC. <ref> Chauveau, p. 25</ref> == What happened to Cleopatra after Caesar was killed? ==Cleopatra's plan may have had of ruling over Rome and Egypt at Caesar’s side was dashed when he was assassinated on the Senate floor in 44 BC. His assassination led to the Second Triumvirate's formation by Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus and another round of the Civil Wars. After the trio achieved victory over Brutus, they divided their spoils with Mark Antony gaining control of the allied eastern kingdoms, which included Ptolemaic Egypt. Mark Antony and Cleopatra soon found themselves as natural allies and later as lovers: she wanted to restore the Ptolemaic Egyptian Empire and he wanted to reorganize the east into Roman provinces. <ref> Chauveau, p. 26</ref>  Eventually, Octavian made his own move to conquer all Roman territory by declaring war on Cleopatra. Mark Antony loyally went to war with Cleopatra but was soundly defeated by the upstart Octavian at the Battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BC. Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony fled to Alexandria, but eleven months later, Octavian and the Roman army came calling. <ref> Chauveau, p. 28</ref> == What killed Cleopatra? == [[File: M_Antonius.png|250px|thumbnail|left|Mark Antony]] According to the ancient sources, when Octavian’s entry into Alexandria was imminent, Mark Antony followed Roman tradition by falling on his gladius sword. There is little controversy surrounding the accounts because that is what a distinguished Roman officer such as Mark Antony would have been expected to do. There is no evidence to suggest he did otherwise.  Cleopatra’s death, though, has been a bit more controversial, largely due to the oldest classical account. The first century AD Roman historian Plutarch and Cassius Dio were the last two classical historians to mention Cleopatra’s death, which they claimed was the result of a snake bite. Still, the earliest reference was made by the first century BC Greek geographer Strabo. The account gives two possibilities for Cleopatra’s death: “Augustus Caesar honored this place because it was here that he conquered in battle those who came out against him with Antony; and when he had taken the city at the first onset, he forced Antony to put himself to death and Cleopatra came into his power alive; but a little later she too put herself to death secretly, while in prison, by the bite of an asp or (for two accounts are given) by applying a poisonous ointment; and the result was that the empire of the sons of Lagus, which had endured for many years, was dissolved.” <ref> Strabo. <i>Geography.</i> Translated by Horace Leonard Jones. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001), Book XVII, 1, 10</ref> All modern scholars agree that Cleopatra took her own life in some fashion. If Cleopatra had surrendered to Octavian, she would have been brought back to Rome as a prisoner, probably tortured, and then more than likely ritually strangled in a public spectacle. A pharaoh would never suffer such indignities, so there is little doubt that she committed suicide, but the question remains, which method did she use? According to later ancient sources, some scholars believe that the poison theory is attractive and point out that she was well-schooled in poison lore. <ref> Scarborough, John. “Cleopatra’s Asp.” <i>Pharmacy in History.</i> 37 (1995) p. 33</ref> Logic would dictate, though, that it would have been easier for Cleopatra to commit suicide by snakebite than through ingesting poison. Getting the right poison may have been difficult to do while under guard, but there were plenty of poisonous snakes around Egypt at the time. Also, the symbolic importance of an Egyptian ruler dying from a snake bite should be considered. Besides being knowledgeable on medicinal topics, Cleopatra was the only Ptolemy who could speak the Egyptian language. By all accounts, she was well-versed in all aspects of pharaonic culture. <ref> Bowman, p. 24</ref>  Because of this knowledge, she would have known that the <i>uraeus</i>, a cobra often depicted on crowns in Egyptian statuary, was a sign of kingship. During the Ptolemaic Period, the double <i>ureaus</i> became particularly popular in statuary and reliefs. <ref> Griffiths, J. Gwyn. “The Death of Cleopatra VII.” <i>Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.</i> 47 (1961) p. 118</ref> Due to these factors, Griffiths argued in his article that Cleopatra probably wore a crown with the double <i>uraeus</i> and that when she committed suicide she did so with two cobras that were brought to her in a basket containing figs, as Plutarch mentioned in his account. <ref> Griffiths, p. 118</ref> == Conclusion ==Cleopatra VII was truly a remarkable woman who influenced the course of history in the ancient world. Although she demonstrated incredible guile and intelligence, Cleopatra is unfortunately remembered best for her more tabloidesque affairs and the manner of her death. There is no doubt that Cleopatra died by her own hands, which was more than likely done through the venom of a snake or snakes, but until more evidence is uncovered, there will be some who believe she ingested a pharmaceutical poison. ====References====<references/><div class="portal" style='float:left; width:35%'> ====Related Articles===={{#dpl:category=Roman History|ordermethod=firstedit|order=descending|count=11}}</div>  [[Category:Wikis]][[Category:Roman History]][[Category:Ancient Egyptian History]]{{Contributors}}