Changes

__NOTOC__[[File:1200px-Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px250px|Alexander the Great]]In the public's mind, few well known conquerors in history match the exploits of Alexander the Great. In just a few years, from 334-330 BC, Alexander would go on to conquer the largest empire the world had known and establish his own empire that eventually stretched from Greece to India. Furthermore, Alexander began a process where Greek culture began to intermix with ancient Near Eastern, Egyptian, Central Asian, and Indian cultures that influenced much of the Old World for many centuries. __NOTOC__

The exchange of ideas and trade brought about an era of unprecedented prosperity and knowledge that advanced In the ancient worldpublic's sciences and led to many discoveries that would not be replicated until the Renaissance mind, few well-known conquerors in history match the 15 or 16th century AD. What is remarkable is he achieved all of this by the age exploits of 32 at Alexander the time of his death in BabylonGreat. HoweverIn just a few years, from 334-330 BC, Alexander would conquer the root of all largest empire the social change world had known and establish his empire that would eventually influence Europestretched from Greece to India. Furthermore, the Alexander began a process where Greek culture began to intermix with ancient Near EastEastern, EgyptEgyptian, Central Asian, and Indian cultures that influenced much of Asia rested in his ability to conquer a lot of territory and doing it quicklythe Old World for many centuries. The question is how did he do this?

====Initial Conquests====[[File:AlexandermosaicThe exchange of ideas and trade brought about an era of unprecedented prosperity and knowledge that advanced the ancient world's sciences.jpg|thumbnail|left|275px|Figure 1It led to many discoveries that would not be replicated until the Renaissance in the 15 or 16th century AD. A mosaic showing Alexander attacking Darius III and his center line at What is remarkable is he achieved all of this by the battle age of Issus.]]Alexander took power after 32 at the death time of his fatherdeath in Babylon. However, Philip II the root of Macedonall the social change that would eventually influence Europe, who had already planned to invade the PersianNear East, Egypt, Achaemenid Empire.<ref>For more on Alexander's father and much of Asia rested in his plans of conquests, see: Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly, ability to conquer many territories and Daniel Ogden, edsdo it quickly. 2010. [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199738157/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0199738157&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=40e1c4808c9befad6d185d849b70849b Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and SonThe question is, Lives and Afterlives]. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> His first battles were in Greece and the Balkans, where how did he consolidated his power while suppressing several revolts. do this?

Shortly after crossing into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30,000-50,000 troops, ==What region did Alexander quickly won his conquer first major battle at Granicus.<ref>For more on this battle, see: Matthews, Rupert. 2008. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1862274487/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1862274487&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=5cd69acbd10c5367b89300d97a9862e7 Alexander the Great at the Battle of Granicus]</i>. Stroud[[File: SpellmountAlexandermosaic.</ref> This victory allowed him to take the western half of Asia Minorjpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Figure 1. After a few sieges and taking the city of Sardis, one of the most important cities in Asia Minor, he proceeded toward Syria where he encountered the Persian King A mosaic showing Alexander attacking Darius III in 333 and his centerline at the battle of Issus.<ref> For more on the battle of Issus, see: Delbrück, Hans. 1975. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0803265867/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0803265867&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f94cfc51938674926b5abff31bc432d5 History of the Art of War]</i>. Lincoln, Neb: University of Nebraska Press/ Bison Book, pg. 191. </ref> This is the first major battle he had with the Persian king and once again Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking by outflanking the Persian army through the use of his cavalry. He made a direct attack on the Persian king's center line, where this key moment in the battle became a famous Roman era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1).]

====The Levant, Syria, and Egypt====After Alexander took power after the battle death of Issushis father, Alexander took the Levant and the coastal Mediterranean citiesPhilip II of Macedon, which were important trading cities and who had allowed the Achaemenids already planned to derive much of their wealth and establish their navy, and proceeded into Egypt. In Syria and invade the LevantPersian, his only major encounters were the sieges of Tyre and Gaza in 332 BCAchaemenid Empire.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in the Levant father and Syriahis plans of conquests, see: Freeman Carney, PhilipElizabeth Donnelly, and Daniel Ogden, eds. 20112010. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/14165928140199738157/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=14165928140199738157&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f5c583c6ae9445145f4140977f336b3f 40e1c4808c9befad6d185d849b70849b Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives]</i>. Oxford ; New York: Simon & Schuster, pg. 26Oxford University Press. </ref> In EgyptHis first battles were Greece and the Balkans, where he was quickly accepted by the local population, as the Egyptians had revolted against the Achaemenids not long before Alexander and, therefore, saw this as an opportunity for new leadershipconsolidated his power while suppressing several revolts.

HereShortly after crossing into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30, he became considered the son of Amun000-50, the chief of the Egyptian pantheon000 troops, further exalting him in the eyes of Alexander quickly won his new subjectsfirst major battle at Granicus. <ref>For more on this battle, see: Matthews, Rupert. 2008. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1862274487/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1862274487&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=5cd69acbd10c5367b89300d97a9862e7 Alexander also began the process Great at the Battle of founding cities, Granicus]</i>. Stroud: Spellmount.</ref> This victory allowed him to take the most famous western half of which was AlexandriaAsia Minor. It's position along the Mediterranean reflects After a key changefew sieges and taking Sardis, where Egypt and one of the eastern Mediterranean worlds would be more strongly integrated most important cities in culture and trade Asia Minor, he proceeded toward Syria. He encountered the Persian King Darius III in the centuries to come333 at Issus's battle.<ref> For more on Alexander's time in Egyptthe battle of Issus, see: BowmanDelbrück, Alan KHans. 19961975. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/05202053160803265867/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=05202053160803265867&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b3b436dd2cc5146e4b70f06b8ab1d48b Egypt after f94cfc51938674926b5abff31bc432d5 History of the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642Art of War] ; from Alexander to the Arab Conquest</i>. 2. paperback printing. BerkeleyLincoln, Calif.Neb: Univ. University of California Nebraska Press/ Bison Book, pg. 22191. </ref> That was Alexander's intention from This is the outset, showing that first major battle he likely had long-termwith the Persian king, and once again, Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking about by outflanking the nature and future of Persian army through his conquered lands long after his own timecavalry. He made a direct attack on the Persian king's centerline, where this key moment in the battle became a famous Roman-era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1).

====Battle of Gaugamela and Fall of the Achaemenids====[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|left|thumbnail|Figure 2. The extent of How did Alexander's empire after his wars with conquer the PersiansLevant, in Central AsiaSyria, and India.]]Egypt?==The Achaemenids perhaps had one more great chance to defeat Alexander at After the battle of Gaugamela near modern day Erbil. ThereIssus, once again Alexander's tactics proved decisive where his forces formed a wedge-shaped attack that then tore into Darius' center, causing took the king to likely flee Levant and the battle. With this battle securecoastal Mediterranean cities, all of Mesopotamia fell to Alexander which were important trading cities and allowed the great city Achaemenids to derive much of Babylon was entered by Alexander without any need for combattheir wealth, establish their navy, and proceed into Egypt. It is at Babylon that Alexander perhaps decided he would make In Syria and the city Levant, his new capital only major encounters were the sieges of his now vast empire, as it would unit Tyre and Gaza in 332 BC.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in the Greek Levant and Near Eastern worlds more closelySyria, see: Freeman, Philip. 2011. <i>[https://www.amazon. com/gp/product/1416592814/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1416592814&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f5c583c6ae9445145f4140977f336b3f Alexander then went on to take Susa, the old capital of the PersiansGreat]</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster, and then the ceremonial capital of Persepolispg. 26. </ref> In Egypt, which he was at least partially burned most likely quickly accepted by the local population, as the Egyptians had revolted against the Achaemenids not long before Alexander's troopsand, therefore, saw this as an opportunity for new leadership.

Only one more major battle was fought against the Persians at Here, he became considered Amun's son, the battle chief of the Persian GatesEgyptian pantheon, a strategic crossing.<ref>For more on the Battles of Gaugamela and Alexanderfurther exalting him in his new subjects's later battles against the Persians, see: Wilcken, Ulrich, and Eugene N. Borza. 1967eyes. Alexander also began the Great. Norton Library. New York: Norton, pg. 60. </ref> After this, Darius III was killed by one process of his own generals and Achaemenid factions continued to lead a guerilla style war against Alexanderfounding cities, although they squabbled between themselves over the remains most famous of their empirewhich was Alexandria. This led Alexander to easily reach Central Asia with only minor resistanceIts position along the Mediterranean reflects a key change, where he founded many cities along Egypt and the way that gained importance during the rise of the Silk Road. This included the city of Kandhar eastern Mediterranean worlds would be more strongly integrated into culture and trade in Afghanistan and eventually reaching Tajikistan, almost near the edge of Tibet. His wars continued in Central Asia and India, where he initially encountered major resistancecenturies to come.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns time in Central Asia and IndiaEgypt, see: RoyBowman, KaushikAlan K. 20041996. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/81782410990520205316/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=81782410990520205316&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=912065039072f879b4b3dfdca7da078a India’s Historic Battlesb3b436dd2cc5146e4b70f06b8ab1d48b Egypt after the Pharaohs: From 332 BC-AD 642] ; from Alexander to the Great to Kargil]</i>Arab Conquest. 2. paperback printing. Berkeley, Calif. Delhi : Bangalore: Permanent Black ; Distributed by Orient LongmanUniv. of California Press, pg. 2922</ref> That was Alexander's intention from the outset, showing that he likely had long-term, strategic thinking about the nature and future of his conquered lands long after his own time.

==What was the Battle of Gaugamela? ==[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|left|thumbnail|250px|Figure 2. The extent of Alexander's battles were empire after his wars with the first where European armies Persians, in Central Asia, and India.]]The Achaemenids perhaps had encountered war elephantsone more great chance to defeat Alexander at Gaugamela's battle near modern-day Erbil. Once again, which likely caused great fear in Alexander's tactics proved decisive where his army before eventually overcoming them in forces formed a wedge-shaped attack that then tore into Darius' center, causing the king to flee the battlelikely. NeverthelessWith this battle secure, the difficulty all of long campaigning Mesopotamia fell to Alexander, and undoubtedly loss Alexander entered Babylon's great city without any need for combat. At Babylon, Alexander perhaps decided he would make the city the new capital of many men led to his men tiring of battle now vast empire, as it would unite the Greek and eventually forcing Near Eastern worlds more closely. Alexander then went on to pull his forces backtake Susa, eventually reaching once again Babylon. By the time Alexander finished campaigningold capital of the Persians, he had created and then the first empire that connected Europe with Central Asia (Figure 2)ceremonial capital of Persepolis, which was at least partially burned most likely by Alexander's troops.

====Why Was He Successful====Clearly Alexander's success lies in his military genius in knowing how to use his cavalry and troops precisely at key moments in battle. Several times it seemed he was close to defeat but was able to use the situation to his advantage by luring his enemies into a deeper trap. Furthermore, his troops were well trained in holding their positions and not panicking in battle.<ref> For more on the battle tactics of Alexander, see: Bose, Partha Sarathi. 2004. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01FJ16XNM/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B01FJ16XNM&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0cdh-20&linkId=641707a6856af1049e12d1340ff7334f Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy: Lessons from the Great Empire Builder]</i>. London: Profile.<ad/ref> However, a lot of the success had little to do with Alexander but the nature of the Achaemenid Empire.

The Achaemenids were perhaps Only one more major battle was fought against the Persians at the most successful empire up to that point. They had not only succeed in uniting a vast territory but also truly integrating it into Persian Gates battle, a cohesive empire that traded extensively and had well maintained roadsstrategic crossing. The Achaemenid state was prosperous and people had by then began to move and live in areas far from their homelands. The world, in essence, had become smaller thanks to many <ref>For More on the Battles of their tolerant policies. While it is true that Egypt Gaugamela and some other regions had revolted Alexander's later battles against themthe Persians, many had actually benefited from the Achaemenids. It is no wondersee: Wilcken, thereforeUlrich, that and Eugene N. Borza. 1967. Alexander marries Persian royalty and eventually takes on the regalia of the Achaemenid kingsGreat. Norton Library. New York: Norton, pg. 60. This is also why he had planned for Babylon to be his new capital</ref> After this, as it Darius III was killed by one of the chief cities his generals, and capitals of the Achaemenid Empire despite being in Mesopotamia. Commerce had now become the glue that bound many regions and factions continued to lead a guerilla-style war against Alexander understood this. This probably led to his men resenting Alexander's penchant for the AchaemenidsHowever, as they squabbled between themselves over the Greeks still held beliefs that the Persians were not on the same level as themremains of their empire.

==What was the Fall of the Achaemenids?== This division allowed Alexander to reach Central Asia with only minor resistance easily. He founded many cities along the way that gained importance during the rise of the Silk Road. This included the city of Kandahar in Afghanistan and eventually reaching Tajikistan, almost near the edge of Tibet. His wars continued in Central Asia and India, where he initially encountered major resistance.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in Central Asia and India, see: Roy, Kaushik. 2004. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/8178241099/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=8178241099&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=912065039072f879b4b3dfdca7da078a India’s Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil]</i>. Delhi : Bangalore: Permanent Black ; Distributed by Orient Longman, pg. 29</ref>  Alexander's battles were the first where European armies had encountered war elephants, which likely caused great fear in his army before eventually overcoming them in battle. Nevertheless, the difficulty of long campaigning and undoubtedly losing many men led to his men tiring of conflict and eventually forcing Alexander to pull his forces back, finally reaching once again Babylon. By the time Alexander finished campaigning, he had created the first empire that connected Europe with Central Asia (Figure 2). ==Why Was Alexander the Great Successful?==Alexander's success lay in his military genius, knowing how to use his cavalry and troops precisely at key moments in battle. It seemed he was close to defeat several times but could use the situation to his advantage by luring his enemies into a deeper trap. Furthermore, his troops were well trained in holding their positions and not panicking in battle.<ref> For more on the battle tactics of Alexander, see Bose, Partha Sarathi. 2004. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01FJ16XNM/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B01FJ16XNM&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=641707a6856af1049e12d1340ff7334f Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy: Lessons from the Great Empire Builder]</i>. London: Profile.</ref> However, a lot of the success had little to do with Alexander but the Achaemenid Empire's nature.  The Achaemenids were perhaps the most successful empire up to that point. They had succeeded in uniting a vast territory and genuinely integrating it into a cohesive realm that traded extensively and had well-maintained roads. The Achaemenid state was prosperous, and people had by then began to move and live in areas far from their homelands. The world, in essence, had become smaller thanks to many of their tolerant policies.  ==What was Alexander's legacy?==While it is true that Egypt and some other regions had revolted against them, many had benefited from the Achaemenids. Therefore, it is no wonder that Alexander marries Persian royalty and eventually takes on the regalia of the Achaemenid kings. This is also why he had planned for Babylon to be his new capital. It was one of the chief cities and capitals of the Achaemenid Empire despite being in Mesopotamia. Commerce had now become the glue that bound many regions, and Alexander understood this. This probably led to his men resenting Alexander's penchant for the Achaemenids, as the Greeks still held beliefs that the Persians were not on the same level as them.  While Alexander died perhaps before he could realize realizing his dream of a super empire, the east's benefits of the east became more apparent to his generals and men, where many . Many of them stayed after the wars. New Greek populations began to migrate to the Near East , and the process of mixing Hellenic and eastern cultures had begun, something that also brought started. The mixture of Greece and the Nearly mixed knowledge and created an integrated knowledge understanding that facilitated the rise of astronomy, physics, mathematics, and other scientific fields. Alexander's legacy lasted long after his death and his . His military success paved the way for the great tremendous Classical achievements that eventually became one of the foundations of the Renaissance and our modern Western world.

====References====

[[Category: Hellenistic Period]][[Category:Alexander the Great]]Updated March 22, 2021