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__NOTOC__[[File:1200px-Alexander_the_Great_mosaic.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px250px|Alexander the Great]]In the public's mind, few well known conquerors in history match the exploits of Alexander the Great. In just a few years, from 334-330 BC, Alexander would go on to conquer the largest empire the world had known and establish his own empire that eventually stretched from Greece to India. Furthermore, Alexander began a process where Greek culture began to intermix with ancient Near Eastern, Egyptian, Central Asian, and Indian cultures that influenced much of the Old World for many centuries. __NOTOC__

<dhIn the public's mind, few well-ad>known conquerors in history match the exploits of Alexander the Great. In just a few years, from 334-330 BC, Alexander would conquer the largest empire the world had known and establish his empire that eventually stretched from Greece to India. Furthermore, Alexander began a process where Greek culture began to intermix with ancient Near Eastern, Egyptian, Central Asian, and Indian cultures that influenced much of the Old World for many centuries.

The exchange of ideas and trade brought about an era of unprecedented prosperity and knowledge that advanced the ancient world's sciences and . It led to many discoveries that would not be replicated until the Renaissance in the 15 or 16th century AD. What is remarkable is he achieved all of this by the age of 32 at the time of his death in Babylon. However, the root of all the social change that would eventually influence Europe, the Near East, Egypt, and much of Asia rested in his ability to conquer a lot of territory many territories and doing do it quickly. The question is , how did he do this?

====Initial Conquests==What region did Alexander conquer first?==[[File:Alexandermosaic.jpg|thumbnail|left|275px250px|Figure 1. A mosaic showing Alexander attacking Darius III and his center line centerline at the battle of Issus.]]Alexander took power after the death of his father, Philip II of Macedon, who had already planned to invade the Persian, Achaemenid Empire.<ref>For more on Alexander's father and his plans of conquests, see: Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly, and Daniel Ogden, eds. 2010. [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199738157/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0199738157&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=40e1c4808c9befad6d185d849b70849b Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives]. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> His first battles were in Greece and the Balkans, where he consolidated his power while suppressing several revolts.

Shortly Alexander took power after crossing into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30the death of his father,000-50Philip II of Macedon,000 troopswho had already planned to invade the Persian, Alexander quickly won his first major battle at GranicusAchaemenid Empire.<ref>For more on this battleAlexander's father and his plans of conquests, see: Matthews Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly, Rupertand Daniel Ogden, eds. 20082010. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/18622744870199738157/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=18622744870199738157&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=5cd69acbd10c5367b89300d97a9862e7 40e1c4808c9befad6d185d849b70849b Philip II and Alexander the Great at the Battle of Granicus]</i>. Stroud: Spellmount.</ref> This victory allowed him to take the western half of Asia Minor. After a few sieges Father and taking the city of SardisSon, one of the most important cities in Asia Minor, he proceeded toward Syria where he encountered the Persian King Darius III in 333 at the battle of Issus.<ref> For more on the battle of Issus, see: Delbrück, Hans. 1975. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0803265867/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0803265867&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f94cfc51938674926b5abff31bc432d5 History of the Art of WarLives and Afterlives]</i>. Lincoln, NebOxford ; New York: Oxford University of Nebraska Press/ Bison Book, pg. 191. </ref> This is the His first major battle he had with the Persian king battles were Greece and once again Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking by outflanking the Persian army through the use of his cavalry. He made a direct attack on the Persian king's center lineBalkans, where this key moment in the battle became a famous Roman era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1)he consolidated his power while suppressing several revolts.

Shortly after crossing into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30,000-50,000 troops, Alexander quickly won his first major battle at Granicus.<ref>For more on this battle, see: Matthews, Rupert. 2008. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1862274487/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=The Levant, Syria, and Egypt9325&creativeASIN=1862274487&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=After 5cd69acbd10c5367b89300d97a9862e7 Alexander the Great at the battle Battle of Issus, Alexander took Granicus]</i>. Stroud: Spellmount.</ref> This victory allowed him to take the Levant western half of Asia Minor. After a few sieges and taking Sardis, one of the coastal Mediterranean cities, which were most important trading cities and had allowed the Achaemenids to derive much of their wealth and establish their navyin Asia Minor, and he proceeded into Egypttoward Syria. In Syria and He encountered the Levant, his only major encounters were the sieges of Tyre and Gaza Persian King Darius III in 332 BC333 at Issus's battle.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in the Levant and Syriabattle of Issus, see: FreemanDelbrück, PhilipHans. 20111975. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/14165928140803265867/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=14165928140803265867&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f5c583c6ae9445145f4140977f336b3f Alexander f94cfc51938674926b5abff31bc432d5 History of the GreatArt of War]</i>. New YorkLincoln, Neb: Simon & SchusterUniversity of Nebraska Press/ Bison Book, pg. 26191. </ref> In Egypt, This is the first major battle he was quickly accepted by had with the local populationPersian king, and once again, as Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking by outflanking the Egyptians had revolted against Persian army through his cavalry. He made a direct attack on the Achaemenids not long before Alexander and, thereforePersian king's centerline, saw where this as an opportunity for new leadershipkey moment in the battle became a famous Roman-era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1).

Here==How did Alexander conquer the Levant, he became considered the son of AmunSyria, and Egypt?==After the chief battle of the Egyptian pantheonIssus, further exalting him in Alexander took the eyes of his new subjects. Alexander also began Levant and the process of founding coastal Mediterranean cities, which were important trading cities and allowed the most famous Achaemenids to derive much of which was Alexandriatheir wealth, establish their navy, and proceed into Egypt. It's position along In Syria and the Mediterranean reflects a key changeLevant, where Egypt and his only major encounters were the eastern Mediterranean worlds would be more strongly integrated in culture sieges of Tyre and trade Gaza in the centuries to come332 BC.<ref> For more on Alexander's time campaigns in Egyptthe Levant and Syria, see: BowmanFreeman, Alan KPhilip. 19962011. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/05202053161416592814/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=05202053161416592814&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b3b436dd2cc5146e4b70f06b8ab1d48b Egypt after f5c583c6ae9445145f4140977f336b3f Alexander the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642Great] ; from Alexander to the Arab Conquest. 2. paperback printing. Berkeley, Calif</i>.New York: Univ. of California PressSimon & Schuster, pg. 2226. </ref> That In Egypt, he was Alexander's intention from quickly accepted by the outsetlocal population, showing that he likely as the Egyptians had revolted against the Achaemenids not long-termbefore Alexander and, therefore, strategic thinking about the nature and future of his conquered lands long after his own timesaw this as an opportunity for new leadership.

====Battle of Gaugamela and Fall of Here, he became considered Amun's son, the Achaemenids====[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|left|thumbnail|Figure 2. The extent chief of Alexander's empire after his wars with the PersiansEgyptian pantheon, further exalting him in Central Asia, and Indiahis new subjects' eyes.]]The Achaemenids perhaps had one more great chance to defeat Alexander at also began the battle process of Gaugamela near modern day Erbil. Therefounding cities, once again Alexander's tactics proved decisive where his forces formed a wedge-shaped attack that then tore into Darius' center, causing the king to likely flee the battle. With this battle secure, all most famous of Mesopotamia fell to Alexander and the great city of Babylon which was entered by Alexander without any need for combatAlexandria. It is at Babylon that Alexander perhaps decided he would make Its position along the city his new capital of his now vast empireMediterranean reflects a key change, as it would unit where Egypt and the Greek and Near Eastern eastern Mediterranean worlds would be more closelystrongly integrated into culture and trade in the centuries to come. <ref> For more on Alexander then went on to take Susa's time in Egypt, Bowman, Alan K. 1996. [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520205316/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520205316&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b3b436dd2cc5146e4b70f06b8ab1d48b Egypt after the old capital of Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642] ; from Alexander to the PersiansArab Conquest. 2. paperback printing. Berkeley, and then the ceremonial capital Calif.: Univ. of PersepolisCalifornia Press, which pg. 22</ref> That was at least partially burned most likely by Alexander's troopsintention from the outset, showing that he likely had long-term, strategic thinking about the nature and future of his conquered lands long after his own time.

Only one more major battle ==What was fought against the Persians at the battle Battle of the Persian Gates, a strategic crossingGaugamela? ==[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|left|thumbnail|250px|Figure 2.<ref>For more on the Battles The extent of Gaugamela and Alexander's later battles against empire after his wars with the Persians, see: Wilcken, Ulrichin Central Asia, and Eugene NIndia. Borza. 1967]]The Achaemenids perhaps had one more great chance to defeat Alexander at Gaugamela's battle near modern-day Erbil. Once again, Alexander 's tactics proved decisive where his forces formed a wedge-shaped attack that then tore into Darius' center, causing the Great. Norton Library. New York: Norton, pgking to flee the battle likely. 60. </ref> After With thisbattle secure, Darius III was killed by one all of his own generals Mesopotamia fell to Alexander, and Achaemenid factions continued to lead a guerilla style war against Alexanderentered Babylon's great city without any need for combat. At Babylon, although they squabbled between themselves over Alexander perhaps decided he would make the remains city the new capital of their his now vast empire, as it would unite the Greek and Near Eastern worlds more closely. This led Alexander then went on to easily reach Central Asia with only minor resistancetake Susa, where he founded many cities along the way that gained importance during the rise old capital of the Silk Road. This included the city of Kandhar in Afghanistan Persians, and eventually reaching Tajikistan, almost near then the edge ceremonial capital of Tibet. His wars continued in Central Asia and IndiaPersepolis, where he initially encountered major resistance.<ref> For more on which was at least partially burned most likely by Alexander's campaigns in Central Asia and India, see: Roy, Kaushik. 2004. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/8178241099/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=8178241099&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=912065039072f879b4b3dfdca7da078a India’s Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil]</i>. Delhi : Bangalore: Permanent Black ; Distributed by Orient Longman, pgtroops. 29</ref>

====Why Was He Successful====Clearly Alexander's success lies in his military genius in knowing how to use his cavalry and troops precisely at key moments in Only one more major battle. Several times it seemed he was close to defeat but was able to use fought against the Persians at the situation to his advantage by luring his enemies into Persian Gates battle, a deeper trap. Furthermore, his troops were well trained in holding their positions and not panicking in battlestrategic crossing.<ref> For more More on the battle tactics Battles of Gaugamela and Alexander's later battles against the Persians, see: BoseWilcken, Partha SarathiUlrich, and Eugene N. 2004Borza. <i>[https://www1967.amazon.com/gp/product/B01FJ16XNM/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B01FJ16XNM&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=641707a6856af1049e12d1340ff7334f Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy: Lessons from the Great Empire Builder]</i>. LondonNorton Library. New York: ProfileNorton, pg. 60.</ref> HoweverAfter this, a lot Darius III was killed by one of the success had little his generals, and Achaemenid factions continued to do with lead a guerilla-style war against Alexander but . However, they squabbled between themselves over the nature remains of the Achaemenid Empiretheir empire.

The ==What was the Fall of the Achaemenids were perhaps the most successful empire up ?== This division allowed Alexander to that point. They had not reach Central Asia with only succeed in uniting a vast territory but also truly integrating it into a cohesive empire that traded extensively and had well maintained roads. The Achaemenid state was prosperous and people had by then began to move and live in areas far from their homelands. The world, in essence, had become smaller thanks to many of their tolerant policiesminor resistance easily. While it is true that Egypt and some other regions had revolted against them, He founded many had actually benefited from cities along the Achaemenids. It is no wonder, therefore, way that Alexander marries Persian royalty and eventually takes on gained importance during the regalia rise of the Achaemenid kingsSilk Road. This is also why he had planned for Babylon to be his new capitalincluded the city of Kandahar in Afghanistan and eventually reaching Tajikistan, as it was one of almost near the chief cities and capitals edge of the Achaemenid Empire despite being Tibet. His wars continued in Mesopotamia. Commerce had now become the glue that bound many regions Central Asia and Alexander understood thisIndia, where he initially encountered major resistance. This probably led to his men resenting <ref> For more on Alexander's penchant for campaigns in Central Asia and India, see: Roy, Kaushik. 2004. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/8178241099/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=8178241099&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=912065039072f879b4b3dfdca7da078a India’s Historic Battles: From Alexander the AchaemenidsGreat to Kargil]</i>. Delhi : Bangalore: Permanent Black ; Distributed by Orient Longman, as the Greeks still held beliefs that the Persians were not on the same level as thempg. 29</ref>

Alexander's battles were the first where European armies had encountered war elephants, which likely caused great fear in his army before eventually overcoming them in battle. Nevertheless, the difficulty of long campaigning and undoubtedly losing many men led to his men tiring of conflict and eventually forcing Alexander to pull his forces back, finally reaching once again Babylon. By the time Alexander finished campaigning, he had created the first empire that connected Europe with Central Asia (Figure 2). ==Why Was Alexander the Great Successful?==Alexander's success lay in his military genius, knowing how to use his cavalry and troops precisely at key moments in battle. It seemed he was close to defeat several times but could use the situation to his advantage by luring his enemies into a deeper trap. Furthermore, his troops were well trained in holding their positions and not panicking in battle.<ref> For more on the battle tactics of Alexander, see Bose, Partha Sarathi. 2004. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01FJ16XNM/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B01FJ16XNM&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=641707a6856af1049e12d1340ff7334f Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy: Lessons from the Great Empire Builder]</i>. London: Profile.</ref> However, a lot of the success had little to do with Alexander but the Achaemenid Empire's nature.  The Achaemenids were perhaps the most successful empire up to that point. They had succeeded in uniting a vast territory and genuinely integrating it into a cohesive realm that traded extensively and had well-maintained roads. The Achaemenid state was prosperous, and people had by then began to move and live in areas far from their homelands. The world, in essence, had become smaller thanks to many of their tolerant policies.  ==What was Alexander's legacy?==While it is true that Egypt and some other regions had revolted against them, many had benefited from the Achaemenids. Therefore, it is no wonder that Alexander marries Persian royalty and eventually takes on the regalia of the Achaemenid kings. This is also why he had planned for Babylon to be his new capital. It was one of the chief cities and capitals of the Achaemenid Empire despite being in Mesopotamia. Commerce had now become the glue that bound many regions, and Alexander understood this. This probably led to his men resenting Alexander's penchant for the Achaemenids, as the Greeks still held beliefs that the Persians were not on the same level as them.  While Alexander died perhaps before he could realize realizing his dream of a super empire, the east's benefits of the east became more apparent to his generals and men, where many . Many of them stayed after the wars. New Greek populations began to migrate to the Near East , and the process of mixing Hellenic and eastern cultures had begun, something that also brought started. The mixture of Greece and the Nearly mixed knowledge and created an integrated knowledge understanding that facilitated the rise of astronomy, physics, mathematics, and other scientific fields. Alexander's legacy lasted long after his death and his . His military success paved the way for the great tremendous Classical achievements that eventually became one of the foundations of the Renaissance and our modern Western world.

====References====

[[Category: Hellenistic Period]][[Category:Alexander the Great]]Updated March 22, 2021