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[[File: Cleopatra_VII.jpg|300px250px|thumbnail|left|Bust of Cleopatra]]__NOTOC__Cleopatra is perhaps one of the most recognized names of all ancient personalities. She is known as a clever temptress who helped reignite the Roman Civil Wars and oversaw the collapse of the Ptolemaic-Egyptian kingdom. Her life and death has been portrayed in fictionalized accounts on both the big and small screens, most notably in the 1963 film <i>Cleopatra</i> and more recently in the HBO series <i>Rome</i>. The real Cleopatra was much more complex than how she is often depicted: she ruled Egypt with the power of a king during a period when rulership was often a male prerogative.

It is true that __NOTOC__Cleopatra (Cleopatra played a pivotal role in VII Philoptor: 51 BCE - 30 BCE) was the Ptolemaic Dynasty's last phase of ruler after she committed suicide. Cleopatra was the Roman Civil WarsPtomley ruler, but in the final analysis it is clear that she was as much as a “player” with her own agency as Mark Antony or Octavian. Perhaps one also connected romantically to two of the more fascinating most Romans in history, Julius Caesar and controversial aspects of Cleopatra’s life is her deathMarc Antony. After Cleopatra’s and Mark Antony’s forces lost to Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, reigniting the pair had few options. Mark Antony took his life in true Roman fashion by stabbing himself with his gladiusCivil Wars, while Cleopatra she committed suicide when she was said 20 years old to have either died from the bite of avoid being paraded around Rome by Octavian as a venomous snake or some other type of poisontrophy. An examination of the classical sources combined with more recent studies indicates While it is well known that Cleopatra more than likely did die from committed suicide, there has been a venomous snake bitegreat deal of debate about how she killed herself.

====The Ptolemies of Egypt====[[File: Pompey’sPillarII.jpg|300px|thumbnail|left|Pompey’s Pillar in Alexandria]]After She is known as a clever temptress who helped reignite the Macedonian general Roman Civil Wars and conqueror Alexander III “the Great” died in 323 BC, his generals divided oversaw the spoils collapse of the former Achaemenid Persian EmpirePtolemaic-Egyptian kingdom. While Her life and death have been portrayed in fictionalized accounts on both the generalsbig and small screens, known as most notably in the 1963 film <i>DiadochiCleopatra</i> were fighting for control of Greece and Anatolia, Ptolemy I (ruled 305-282 BC) quietly became more recently in the king of Egypt. After he defeated another Macedonian general named Perdiccas for possession of Alexander’s body and control of Egypt, he was no longer threatened by his kinsmen and was able to start a new dynasty in Egypt comprised entirely of Macedonian Greeks. <ref> Bowman, Alan K. HBO series <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520205316/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520205316&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=3652d49207aeab2b3aaed7a4b330fb4 Egypt after the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642 from Alexander to the Arab Conquest].Rome</i> (Los Angeles. The real Cleopatra was much more complex than how she is often depicted: University of California Press, 1996), pshe ruled Egypt with a king's power during a period when rulership was often a male prerogative. 22</ref>

Ptolemy I established many of Cleopatra indeed played a pivotal role in the cultural attributes that were representative last phase of Ptolemaic Egypt and it was during his reign that the city of Alexandria was first builtRoman Civil Wars. Although he remained thoroughly Greek and never learned Still, in the Egyptian languagefinal analysis, his coronation and some she was as much a “player” with her own agency as Mark Antony or Octavian. Perhaps one of the more impressive fascinating and controversial aspects of his reign were commemorated on the “Satrap Stela,” which was an Egyptian language textCleopatra’s life is her death. <ref> Chauveau, Michael. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0801485762/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0801485762&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=cf8066cf62dfe75be15daa7391c84dc8 Egypt in After Cleopatra’s and Mark Antony’s forces lost to Octavian at the Age Battle of Cleopatra: History and Society under Actium in 31 BC, the Ptolemies]pair had few options.</i> Translated Mark Antony took his life in true Roman fashion by David Lorton. (Ithacastabbing himself with his gladius, New York: Cornell University Press, 2000), p. 38</ref> The stela while Cleopatra was an example said to have either died from the bite of how the Ptolemies were willing to accept a venomous snake or some features other type of traditional Egyptian culture on the outside while still remaining members poison. An examination of the Hellenistic world at their coreclassical sources combined with more recent studies indicates that Cleopatra more than likely did die from a venomous snake bite.

== Why did the Ptolemy's successors would go on to make Alexandria a cultural magnet as it was a city where some of the greatest scholars of the Hellenistic world traveled to in order to establish themselves in their respective fields, including history, science, philosophy, and art. Although built on Egyptian soil, Alexandria was essentially a Greek city, which was due in large part to large scale Greek immigration to the city during the first 100 years of Ptolemaic Family rule. <ref> Bowman, p. 122</ref> The result was that Alexandria looked more like a Greek city with a veneer of Egyptian influence, while the rest of Egypt continued on as it had for centuries. Citizenship followed the Greek model, but a tripartite legal system developed where lawsuits, marriage customs, and criminal laws were followed according to membership in one of the three major ethnic communities: Greek, Egyptian, and Jewish. <ref> Bowman, pgs. 124-125</ref> Along with the political alterations the Ptolemies brought to Egypt, there were also significant cultural changes that took place. Later, when the Romans took control of Egypt they continued the trend by building amphitheaters and other public monuments such as Pompey’s Pillar, which is dated to the third century AD.? ==

Roman influence in Ptolemaic Egypt began After the Macedonian general and conqueror Alexander III “the Great” died in the early second century 323 BC. During that period, his generals divided the spoils of the Roman Republic was fresh off its victory over Carthage in former Achaemenid Persian Empire. While the Second Punic War and generals, known as the Hellenistic successor states <i>Diadochi</i>, were involved in internecine fighting for control of the east. Under King Greece and Anatolia, Ptolemy VI I (reigned 180ruled 305-145 282 BC), Ptolemaic Egypt quietly became embroiled in a war with the Hellenistic successor kingdom known as the Seleucid Empireking of Egypt. After he defeated another Macedonian general named Perdiccas for possession of Alexander’s body and control of Egypt, which he was led no longer threatened by Antiochus IV (ruled 175-164 BC)his kinsmen and was able to start a new dynasty in Egypt comprised entirely of Macedonian Greeks. The war<ref> Bowman, known as the Sixth Syrian War (170Alan K. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520205316/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520205316&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-168 BC), was the last one between the two kingdoms and although the Seleucids technically won when he successfully invaded 20&linkId=3652d49207aeab2b3aaed7a4b330fb4 Egypt and proclaimed himself pharaoh, they were forced to leave when after the Romans intervened. According to the second century Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD Roman historian Dio, Antiochus IV knew better than 642 from Alexander to challenge the RomansArab Conquest].</i> (Los Angeles:University of California Press, 1996), p. 22</ref>

“In a campaign directed against Egypt he conquered Ptolemy I established many of the greater part cultural attributes that were representative of the country Ptolemaic Egypt, and spent some time in besieging Alexandria. When the rest sought refuge with the Romans, Popilius it was sent to Antiochus and bade him keep during his hands off Egypt; for the brothers, comprehending reign that the designs city of Antiochus, had become reconciledAlexandria was first built. When Although he remained thoroughly Greek and never learned the latter was for putting off his replyEgyptian language, Popilius drew a circle about him with his staff coronation and demanded that he deliberate and answer standing where he some of his reign's more impressive aspects were commemorated on the “Satrap Stela,” which wasan Egyptian language text. Antiochus then in fear raised the siege.” <ref> Cassius DioChauveau, Michael. <i> Roman [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0801485762/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0801485762&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=cf8066cf62dfe75be15daa7391c84dc8 Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: Historyand Society under the Ptolemies].</i> Translated by Earnest CaryDavid Lorton. (CambridgeIthaca, MassachusettsNew York: Harvard Cornell University Press, 19542000), XX, 9, 25p. 38</ref>The stela was an example of how the Ptolemies were willing to accept some features of traditional Egyptian culture on the outside while remaining members of the Hellenistic world at their core.

====Cleopatra in Power====[[File: Dendera_Cesarion.jpg|300px|left|thumbnail|Relief from the Temple of Dendera in Egypt Depicting Cleopatra VII and Caesarion/Ptolemy XV Offering to the Egyptian Goddess Hathor]]The Cleopatra in question here 's successors would make Alexandria a cultural magnet as it was actually a city where some of the seventh member greatest scholars of the Ptolemaic Dynasty Hellenistic world traveled to take the name. Cleopatra came to power when her long-ruling but mostly ineffective father Ptolemy XII (ruled 80-51 BC) declared before he died that he desired his oldest daughterestablish themselves in their respective fields, Cleopatra VIIincluding history, and oldest sonscience, Ptolemy XIIIphilosophy, to co-rule as king and queenart. The rule would require that the offspring marryAlthough built on Egyptian soil, Alexandria was essentially a Greek city, which was due in large part to a practice initiated by large scale Greek immigration to the second Ptolemaic king, Ptolemy II (reigned 284-246 BC), and continued until city during the end first 100 years of the dynastyPtolemaic rule. <ref> Bowman, p. 24122</ref> When Ptolemy XII died, Cleopatra VII The result was sixteen and Ptolemy XIII was only twelvethat Alexandria looked more like a Greek city with a veneer of Egyptian influence, which meant that there was bound to be plenty while the rest of court intrigueEgypt continued as it had for centuries.

Citizenship followed the Greek model, but a tripartite legal system developed where lawsuits, marriage customs, and criminal laws were followed according to membership in one of the three major ethnic communities: Greek, Egyptian, and Jewish. <ref> Bowman, pgs. 124-125</ref> Along with the political alterations the Ptolemies brought to Egypt, there were also significant cultural changes. Later, when the Romans took control of Egypt, they continued the trend by building amphitheaters and other public monuments such as Pompey’s Pillar, which is dated to the third century AD. Roman influence in Ptolemaic Egypt began in the early second century BC. During that period, the Roman Republic was fresh off its victory over Carthage in the Second Punic War. The Hellenistic successor states were involved in internecine fighting for control of the east. Under King Ptolemy VI (reigned 180-145 BC), Ptolemaic Egypt became embroiled in a war with the Hellenistic successor kingdom known as the Seleucid Empire, which was led by Antiochus IV (ruled 175-164 BC). The war, known as the Sixth Syrian War (170-168 BC), was the last one between the two kingdoms. Although the Seleucids technically won when he successfully invaded Egypt and proclaimed himself pharaoh, they were forced to leave when the Romans intervened. According to the second century AD Roman historian Dio, Antiochus IV knew better than to challenge the Romans: “In a campaign directed against Egypt, he conquered the greater part of the country and spent some time besieging Alexandria. When the rest sought refuge with the Romans, Popilius was sent to Antiochus and bade him keep his hands off Egypt, for the brothers, comprehending Antiochus's designs, had become reconciled. When the latter was for putting off his reply, Popilius drew a circle about him with his staff and demanded that he deliberate and answer standing where he was. Antiochus then, in fear, raised the siege.” <ref> Cassius Dio. <i> Roman History.</i> Translated by Earnest Cary. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1954), XX, 9, 25</ref> == When did Cleopatra rule Egypt? ==[[File: Dendera_Cesarion.jpg|250px|left|thumbnail|Relief from the Temple of Dendera in Egypt Depicting Cleopatra VII and Caesarion/Ptolemy XV Offering to the Egyptian Goddess Hathor]] The Cleopatra in question here was actually the seventh member of the Ptolemaic Dynasty to take the name. Cleopatra came to power when her long-ruling but mostly ineffective father Ptolemy XII (ruled 80-51 BC) declared before he died that he desired his oldest daughter, Cleopatra VII, and oldest son, Ptolemy XIII, to co-rule as king and queen. The rule would require that the offspring marry, a practice initiated by the second Ptolemaic king, Ptolemy II (reigned 284-246 BC), and continued until the end of the dynasty. <ref> Bowman, p. 24</ref> When Ptolemy XII died, Cleopatra VII was sixteen, and Ptolemy XIII was only twelve, which meant that there was bound to be plenty of court intrigue. It took little time before Ptolemy XIII and his advisors, who were no doubt undoubtedly pulling the strings, decided Cleopatra VII was no longer needed , so she was expelled from Egypt. It was at that point that Egypt became a major theater of operations during the Roman Civil Wars. The general Pompey fled to Egypt after his defeat to Julius Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC; but instead of being welcomed in Egypt, Pompey was murdered, which gave Caesar the pretense to enter Alexandria with his legions to make Cleopatra VII the sole ruler of Egypt in 47 BC. <ref> Chauveau, p. 24</ref>

== Why did Cleopatra ally with Julius Caesar? ==At that point, Cleopatra was clearly more of an Egyptian than a Macedonian ruler. The idea of a woman ruling alone was rare in ancient Egypt, but not totally unheard of, with at least three known examples before Cleopatra, the best one being Hatshepsut (ruled ca, 1478-1458 BC). Hatshepsut adopted the titulary of kingship in texts and was shown with the accoutrements accouterments of kingship in artistic depictions, leaving no doubt to modern scholars that she was , in fact , a “king” in the pharaonic sense. <ref> Robins, Gay. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674954696/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0674954696&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=6b94f30f49ec6e295d5ca206d6b8ce3b Women in Ancient Egypt].</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 46</ref> There is no evidence to suggest that Cleopatra consciously followed Hatshepsut’s example, or if she even knew about her illustrious predecessor, but there is little doubt that she also assumed all of the prerogatives of an ancient Egyptian king, much like Hatshepsut. One of the first things she did was to give her full support to Caesar and Rome, which she believed would be bolstered when she gave birth to his son, Ptolemy XV/Caesarion on July 23, 47 BC. <ref> Chauveau, p. 25</ref>

Any plan There is no evidence to suggest that Cleopatra may have had consciously followed Hatshepsut’s example, or if she even knew about her illustrious predecessor. Still, there is little doubt that she also assumed all of ruling over Rome and Egypt at Caesar’s side was dashed when he was assassinated on the Senate floor in 44 BC. His assassination led to the formation prerogatives of the Second Triumvirate by Octavianan ancient Egyptian king, Mark Antony, and Lepidus and another round of the Civil Warsmuch like Hatshepsut. After the trio achieved victory over Brutus, they divided their spoils with Mark Antony gaining control One of the allied eastern kingdomsfirst things she did was give her full support to Caesar and Rome, which included Ptolemaic Egypt. Mark Antony and Cleopatra soon found themselves as natural allies and later as lovers: she wanted believed would be bolstered when she gave birth to restore the Ptolemaic Egyptian Empire and he wanted to reorganize the east into Roman provinces. <ref> Chauveauhis son, p. 26<Ptolemy XV/ref> EventuallyCaesarion, Octavian made his own move to conquer all Roman territory by declaring war on Cleopatra. Mark Antony loyally went to war for his ally and lover but was soundly defeated by the upstart Octavian at the Battle of Actium on September 2July 23, 31 47 BC. Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony fled to Alexandria, but eleventh months later Octavian and the Roman army came calling. <ref> Chauveau, p. 2825</ref>

====The Death of What happened to Cleopatraafter Caesar was killed? ==== [[File: M_Antonius.png|300px|thumbnail|left|Mark Antony]]According to the ancient sources, Cleopatra's plan may have had of ruling over Rome and Egypt at Caesar’s side was dashed when Octavian’s entry into Alexandria he was imminent, Mark Antony followed Roman tradition by falling assassinated on his gladius swordthe Senate floor in 44 BC. There is little controversy surrounding His assassination led to the accounts because that is what a distinguished Roman officer such as Second Triumvirate's formation by Octavian, Mark Antony would have been expected to do. There is no evidence to suggest he did otherwise. Cleopatra’s death, though, has been a bit more controversial largely due to and Lepidus and another round of the oldest classical accountCivil Wars. The first century AD Roman historian Plutarch and Cassius Dio were After the last two classical historians to mention Cleopatra’s deathtrio achieved victory over Brutus, which they claimed was divided their spoils with Mark Antony gaining control of the result of a snake biteallied eastern kingdoms, but which included Ptolemaic Egypt. Mark Antony and Cleopatra soon found themselves as natural allies and later as lovers: she wanted to restore the earliest reference was made by Ptolemaic Egyptian Empire and he wanted to reorganize the first century BC Greek geographereast into Roman provinces. <ref> Chauveau, Strabop. The account gives two possibilities for Cleopatra’s death:26</ref>

“Augustus Caesar honoured this place because it Eventually, Octavian made his own move to conquer all Roman territory by declaring war on Cleopatra. Mark Antony loyally went to war with Cleopatra but was here that he conquered in battle those who came out against him with Antony; and when he had taken soundly defeated by the city upstart Octavian at the first onsetBattle of Actium on September 2, he forced 31 BC. Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony fled to put himself to death and Cleopatra came into his power alive; Alexandria, but a little eleven months later she too put herself to death secretly, while in prison, by the bite of an asp or (for two accounts are given) by applying a poisonous ointment; Octavian and the result was that the empire of the sons of Lagus, which had endured for many years, was dissolvedRoman army came calling.” <ref> Strabo. <i>GeographyChauveau, p.</i> Translated by Horace Leonard Jones. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001), Book XVII, 1, 1028</ref>

All modern scholars agree that == What killed Cleopatra took her own life in some fashion. If Cleopatra would have surrendered to Octavian, she would have been brought back to Rome as a prisoner, probably tortured, and then more than likely ritually strangled in a public spectacle. A pharaoh would never suffer such indignities so there is little doubt that she committed suicide, but the question remains, which method did she use? Some scholars believe that the poison theory is attractive and point out that according to later ancient sources she was well-schooled in poison lore. <ref> Scarborough, John. “Cleopatra’s Asp.” <i>Pharmacy in History.</i> 37 (1995) p== [[File: M_Antonius. 33</ref>png|250px|thumbnail|left|Mark Antony]]

Logic would dictateCleopatra’s death, though, that it would have has been easier for Cleopatra a bit more controversial, largely due to commit suicide by snake bite than through ingesting poisonthe oldest classical account. Getting The first century AD Roman historian Plutarch and Cassius Dio were the right poison may have been difficult last two classical historians to do while under guardmention Cleopatra’s death, but there were plenty of poisonous snakes around Egypt at which they claimed was the time. Also, there is the symbolic importance result of an Egyptian ruler dying from a snake bite that should be considered. Along with being knowledgeable on medicinal topicsStill, Cleopatra the earliest reference was the only Ptolemy who could speak the Egyptian language and made by all accounts she was well-versed in all aspects of pharaonic culture. <ref> Bowman, p. 24</ref> Because of this knowledge, she would have known that the <i>uraeus</i>, a cobra often depicted on crowns in Egyptian statuary, was a sign of kingshipfirst century BC Greek geographer Strabo. During the Ptolemaic Period, the double <i>ureaus</i> became particularly popular in statuary and reliefs. <ref> Griffiths, J. Gwyn. “The Death of Cleopatra VII.” <i>Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.</i> 47 (1961) p. 118</ref> Due to these factors, Griffiths argued in his article that Cleopatra probably wore a crown with the double <i>uraeus</i> and that when she committed suicide she did so with The account gives two cobras that were brought to her in a basket containing figs, as Plutarch mentioned in his account. <ref> Griffiths, p. 118</ref>possibilities for Cleopatra’s death:

==“Augustus Caesar honored this place because it was here that he conquered in battle those who came out against him with Antony; and when he had taken the city at the first onset, he forced Antony to put himself to death and Cleopatra came into his power alive; but a little later she too put herself to death secretly, while in prison, by the bite of an asp or (for two accounts are given) by applying a poisonous ointment; and the result was that the empire of the sons of Lagus, which had endured for many years, was dissolved.” <ref> Strabo. <i>Geography.</i> Translated by Horace Leonard Jones. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001), Book XVII, 1, 10</ref> All modern scholars agree that Cleopatra took her own life in some fashion. If Cleopatra had surrendered to Octavian, she would have been brought back to Rome as a prisoner, probably tortured, and then more than likely ritually strangled in a public spectacle. A pharaoh would never suffer such indignities, so there is little doubt that she committed suicide, but the question remains, which method did she use? According to later ancient sources, some scholars believe that the poison theory is attractive and point out that she was well-schooled in poison lore. <ref> Scarborough, John. “Cleopatra’s Asp.” <i>Pharmacy in History.</i> 37 (1995) p. 33</ref> Logic would dictate, though, that it would have been easier for Cleopatra to commit suicide by snakebite than through ingesting poison. Getting the right poison may have been difficult to do while under guard, but there were plenty of poisonous snakes around Egypt at the time. Also, the symbolic importance of an Egyptian ruler dying from a snake bite should be considered. Besides being knowledgeable on medicinal topics, Cleopatra was the only Ptolemy who could speak the Egyptian language. By all accounts, she was well-versed in all aspects of pharaonic culture. <ref> Bowman, p. 24</ref>  Because of this knowledge, she would have known that the <i>uraeus</i>, a cobra often depicted on crowns in Egyptian statuary, was a sign of kingship. During the Ptolemaic Period, the double <i>ureaus</i> became particularly popular in statuary and reliefs. <ref> Griffiths, J. Gwyn. “The Death of Cleopatra VII.” <i>Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.</i> 47 (1961) p. 118</ref> Due to these factors, Griffiths argued in his article that Cleopatra probably wore a crown with the double <i>uraeus</i> and that when she committed suicide she did so with two cobras that were brought to her in a basket containing figs, as Plutarch mentioned in his account. <ref> Griffiths, p. 118</ref> ==Conclusion====Cleopatra VII was truly a remarkable woman who influenced the course of history in the ancient world. Although she demonstrated incredible guile and intelligence, Cleopatra is unfortunately remembered best for her more tabloidesque affairs and situations, one of them being the manner of her death. There is no doubt that Cleopatra died by her own hands, which was more than likely done through the venom of a snake, or snakes; , but until more evidence is uncovered , there will be some who believe she ingested a pharmaceutical poison.