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__NOTOC__[[File:Benjamin Civiletti (1979).jpg|thumb|left|250px|Figure 1. Benjamin Civiletti's decision on shutdown may have made them easier in later years. ]]This history of government shutdowns in the United States is relatively recent. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, government shutdowns did not exist, but since 1980 the trend of government shutdowns has not only emerged but has increasingly been evident as part of a weapon in US politics. Why has this has happened and its history is discussed below. ?

====Government Shutdowns in the 1980s====The first recorded shutdown occurred on May 1, 1980, during the presidency of Jimmy Carter. The shutdown lasted one day and only affected the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). The critical event that not only created this shutdown but allowed others to emerge later was Benjamin Civiletti's decision (Figure 1), who was the US Attorney General, to interpret that the Antideficiency Act of 1884 indicated that if an agency of the government does not have sufficient funds to continue its required function then that part of government would need to furlough its workers. Initially, it was interpreted that agencies of the US government could continue working without sufficient funds, and fund employees by having the government borrow, and that workers could even be paid until the appropriations could be obtained. Thus, a dispute over the appropriation and oversight of the FTC on the economy in Congress forced the agency to shutdown for one day. Although brief, this produced an important precedent that arguably affected later shutdowns. <ref>For more on the origins of the 1980 this shutdown had long-term consequences, see: Bacon, D. C., Davidson, R. H., & Keller, M. (Eds.). (1995). <i>The encyclopedia of the United States Congress</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster, pg. 149.</ref>

The first recorded shutdown Between 1981-1986, three government shutdowns occurred on May 1, 1980 during the presidency none of Jimmy Carter. The shutdown which lasted one day and only affected the Federal Trade Commission (FTC)more than 24 hours. The critical event that not only created this shutdown but allowed others These shutdowns resulted due to emerge later was Benjamin CivilettiRegan's decision (Figure 1), who was the US Attorney Generalvetos of different appropriations sent to him by Congress. In all of these cases, Ronald Regan had wanted to make more significant cuts to interpret that the Antideficiency Act appropriations of different departments and agencies. The furloughs were shortlived but affected now hundreds of 1884 indicated that if an agency thousands of the government does not have sufficient funds to continue its required function then that part federal employees. Shutdowns now became a distinct feature of government would need to furlough its workersAmerican politics. Initially, it This was interpreted that agencies also significant as now appropriations began to increasingly be seen as part of the US government could continue working without sufficient funds, partisan tactics and fund employees by having the government borrow, and that workers could ideologies. Economists had estimated even be paid until these short shutdowns affected the appropriations could be obtained. Thus, a dispute over economy in the appropriation and oversight 10s of the FTC millions due to their disruption on the wider economy in Congress forced the agency to shutdown for one day. Although brief, this produced an important precedent that arguably affected later shutdowns. <ref>For more on shutdowns during the origins of the 1980 shutdown and its long-term consequencesRegan years, see: Bacon, D. C., DavidsonMeyers, R. H., & Keller, MT. (Eds.1997). (1995)Late Appropriations and Government Shutdowns: Frequency, Causes, Consequences, and Remedies. <i>The encyclopedia of the United States CongressPublic Budgeting & Finance</i>, 17(3), 25–38. New Yorkhttps: Simon & Schuster, pg//doi.org/10. 1491111/1540-5850.01107 </ref>

Between 1981====Government Shutdowns in the 1990s====[[File:Ap 126625286891 custom-f3c16057c80a180f23b215d389d5efbf44b05327-s800-1986, three c85.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Figure 2. The long government shutdowns occurred, none of which lasted more than 24 hours. These shutdowns resulted due shutdown between 1995 and 1996 may have led to Reganthe Republican's vetos of different appropriations sent to him by Congress. In all of these cases, Ronald Regan had wanted to make more significant cuts to defeat in the appropriations of different departments and agencies1996 elections. ]]The furloughs were shortlived but affected now hundreds first shutdown of thousands of federal employees. Shutdowns now became a distinct feature of American politicsthe 1990s occurred during George H Bush's term from October 6-8th 1990. This shutdown was also significant as now appropriations began to increasingly be seen as part of partisan tactics very minor in that it only affected a few thousand employees, primarily national park and ideologies. Economists had estimated even these short shutdowns museum employees were affected the economy in the 10s of millions due , with a cost to their disruption on the wider economybetween $2-3 million.<ref>For more on shutdowns during In large part, this was because the Regan years, see: Meyers, Rshutdown occurred over a holiday period. TThe main dispute was Bush's desire to increase taxes and make major reductions to Medicare. (1997). Late Appropriations Eventually, he and Government Shutdowns: FrequencyCongress compromised by not making large tax increases, Causes, Consequenceswith only wealthy individuals seeing their taxes rise, and Remedies. <i>Public Budgeting & Finance</i>, 17(3), 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5850reductions to government spending proposed were reduced.01107 </ref>

[[FileThe most significant period of government shutdowns occurred between 1995-96, during Bill Clinton's presidency. The first shutdown lasted from November 14-19 1995. At the time, this was the longest shutdown and led to a furloughing of more than 800,000 government employees. Congress under Newt Gingrich's leadership wanted to make large cuts to the federal budget. The second and even more significant shutdown was due to unresolved disputes in the federal budget between Gingrich and Clinton, where this second shutdown lasted from December 16 1995-January 9 1996. This second shutdown was the most significant in terms of its length and arguably politicized shutdowns more than prior shutdowns with both sides having strident comments about the other. For Gingrich, his comments and actions reflected poorly for him in the polls, while Clinton actually his increased popularity and arguably helped him get reelected in 1996. The second shutdown in 1995 led to the furloughing of about 284,000 employees (Figure 2).<ref>For more on the government shutdowns of the 1990s, see:Benjamin Civiletti Schier, S. E. (1979Ed.).jpg|thumb|Figure 1(2000). Benjamin Civiletti's decision on shutdown may have made them easier <i>The postmodern presidency: Bill Clinton’s legacy in later yearsU.S. politics</i>. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ]]</ref>

==Government Shutdowns One result of the 1995-96 shutdown, and because it was long-lived, was that shutdowns began to be seen as politically costly for the major parties. This effectively meant that both parties tried to avoid shutdowns in the 1990s==subsequent years after 1996 and this helped to avoid any shutdowns throughout the 2000s and the period of George W. Bush's presidency. However, appropriation disputes often continued and the threat of shutdowns was often used.

The first shutdown ====More Recent Shutdowns====<dh-ad/>Since the presidency of the 1990s occurred during George H Bush's term from October 6-8th 1990. This shutdown was very minor in that it only affected a few thousand employeesBarack Obama, with mostly national park and museum employees affected, with shutdowns have emerged once again as a cost to the economy between $2-3 millionphenomenon of US politics. In large part2013, Congress, this was because the shutdown occurred over time divided between a Democratic-controlled Senate and a holiday period. The main dispute was Bush's desire Republican-controlled House, came to increase taxes and make major reductions to Medicaredisagreements on the 2014 Continuing Appropriations Bill. EventuallyBefore 2013, he and Congress compromised by not making large tax increasesshutdowns were often avoided, with only wealthy individuals seeing their taxes risesometimes at the last minute, and reductions to government spending proposed were reduced. The most significant period of government shutdowns in the 1990s occurred between 1995using short-96term continuing appropriation bills or continuing resolutions (CRs), during which effectively allowed government to operate using the presidency of Bill Clintonprevious fiscal year's budget levels. The first shutdown lasted from November 14These were short-19 1995term solutions that often created uncertainty for government employees but were often resolved because both parties saw shutdowns as too politically costly. At the timeHowever, on October 1, 2013, this was the longest shutdown and led to a furloughing of more than 800,000 government employees. Congress under Newt Gingrich's leadership wanted to make large cuts to the federal budget. The second 16-day shutdown was occurred due to unresolved disputes many appropriation disagreements, in particular funding and timing of funding for the federal budget between Gingrich and Clinton, where this second shutdown lasted from December 16-January 9 19962013 Affordable Care Act being a major source of contention. This second shutdown was bitterness over the most significant in terms of its length new health bill and arguably politicized shutdowns more than prior shutdowns. For Gingrich, his comments and actions reflected poorly for him in the polls, while increased pressure from political groups to try to stop appropriation for Clinton his popularity increased after this period and arguably helped him get reelected other funding in 1996. The second shutdown the government led to a stalemate in 1995 Congress that led to the furloughing of about 284,000 employees (Figure 2)eventual shutdown.<ref>For more on the government shutdowns One key source of contention was the 1990s, see: Schier, S. E. (Ed.). (2000)debt ceiling that can only be lifted by Congress. <i>The postmodern presidency: Bill Clinton’s legacy in U.S. politics</i>. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. </ref>

One result of Since the 1995-96 shutdown1990s, the US government spending debt has increased substantially and because it was long-lived, there was increased concern on expiring debt that shutdowns began would cause the US government to be seen as politically costly for the major partiesdefault in its debt obligations. This effectively meant that both parties tried Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell (R) and Harry Reid (D), Senate Majority Leader, eventually agreed to avoid shutdowns in lift the subsequent years after 1996 debt ceiling and increase income verification in relation to health insurance. Nevertheless, hostility during this helped time lingered and increased partisanship often made appropriation bills put the government close to avoid any shutdowns throughout shutdown from year to year.<ref>For an analysis on the 2000s 2013 shutdown, see: Lundy, R. C. (Ed.). (2014). <i>The government shutdown of 2013: perspective and the period of George Wanalyses</i>. Bush's presidencyNew York: Nova Publishers. </ref>

[[File:Ap 126625286891 custom-f3c16057c80a180f23b215d389d5efbf44b05327-s800-c85In 2018, the first shutdown of President Trump's tenure occurred on January 20th and lasted to January 23rd. The main dispute revolved around immigration, with Congressional disagreement on funding for the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) policy, which would prevent the deportation of individuals brought to the United States illegally as minors.jpg|thumb|Figure 2Congressional Democrats mostly wanted DACA as official policy, while many Republicans did not. The long government shutdown between 1995 dispute ended when Republicans agreed to talks on DACA and 1996 may have led Democrats removed their filibuster to Republican legislation. The eventual passage of the Republican's defeat 2018 Bipartisan Budget Act allowed funding to continue through most of 2018. However, things changed in the 1996 electionsDecember 2018. ]]

Since the presidency of Barack Obama====Summary====Shutdowns entered American political discourse, shutdowns have emerged once again as a phenomenon of US politics. In 2013in some ways, Congressperhaps accidentally due to what was, this at the time divided between , a Democratic-controlled Senate and a Republican-controlled House, came relatively minor disagreement about the FTC's role in regulating the economy that led to major disagreements on the 2014 Continuing Appropriations Bill. Before 2013, shutdowns were often avoided, sometimes at Attorney General reinterpreting the last minute, using short-term continuing appropriation bills or continuing resolutions (CRs). These were short-term solutions that often created uncertainty 1884 Antideficiency Act to allow for government employees but were often resolved because both parties saw shutdowns as costly. However, This decision could be argued has had a great effect on October 1, 2013the US government and employees, as it now effectively set a 16-day shutdown occurred due to many appropriation disagreements, in particular funding and timing of funding precedent for the 2013 Affordable Care Act being a major source politicization of contentionappropriation bills and made shutdowns possible. This bitterness over the new health bill and increased pressure from political groups Whereas before it was not possible to try to stop appropriation for this and other funding in shutdown the government led to the stalemate , it became possible for even a minority party in Congress that led to the eventual delay or shutdown. One key source of contention was the debt ceiling that can only be lifted government by Congress. Since the 1990sdemonstrating its disagreement about an issue, sometimes not even directly related to the appropriation in dispute. Shutdowns in 1995-96 had a major impact on US government spending debt has increased substantially politics by making both parties avoid them for nearly twenty years, but that changed during President Obama's tenure and there was today's increased concern on expiring debt that would cause the US government partisanship has also led to default in its debt obligations. Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell (R) and Harry Reid (D)a more recent record-breaking, Senate Majority Leader, eventually agreed to lift the debt ceiling and increase income verification at least in relation to health insurance. <ref>For an analysis on the 2013 shutdowntime, see: Lundy, R. C. (Ed.). (2014). <i>The government shutdown of 2013: perspective and analyses</i>. New York: Nova Publishers. </ref>

In 2018, the first shutdown of President Trump's tenure occurred on January 20th and lasted to January 23rd. The main dispute revolved around immigration, with Congressional disagreement on funding for the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) policy, which would prevent the deportation of individuals brought to the United States illegally as minors. Congressional Democrats mostly wanted DACA funded, while many Republicans did not. The dispute ended when Republicans agreed to talks on DACA and Democrats removed their filibuster. The eventual passage of the 2018 Bipartisan Budget Act allowed funding to continue through most of 2018. However, things would change in December 2018. For the appropriation of 2019, President Trump and some Republicans sought to have funding included in the appropriation for a protective wall along the US-Mexico border. Continuing resolutions that did not include funding for the wall were refused by Trump with Democrats also refusing to include any funding. From December 22, 2018 to January 25, 2019, the government shutdown affected more than 380,000 through furloughs and 420,000 works being asked to work without pay. The shutdown mostly came to an end due to increased security and safety concerns due to the record shutdown period affecting the FBI and Transportation Security Administration (TSA).<ref>For more recent politics and government shutdowns, seediv class="portal" style="width: Kruse, K. M., & Zelizer, J. E. (2019). <i>Fault lines: a history of the United States since 1974 </i>(First edition). New York: W.W. Norton & Company.</ref85%;">

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