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In the public's mind, few well -known conquerors in history match the exploits of Alexander the Great. In just a few years, from 334-330 BC, Alexander would go on to conquer the largest empire the world had known and establish his own empire that eventually stretched from Greece to India. Furthermore, Alexander began a process where Greek culture began to intermix with ancient Near Eastern, Egyptian, Central Asian, and Indian cultures that influenced much of the Old World for many centuries.  The exchange of ideas and trade brought about an era of unprecedented prosperity and knowledge that advanced the ancient world's sciences and . It led to many discoveries that would not be replicated until the Renaissance in the 15 or 16th century AD. What is remarkable is he achieved all of this by the age of 32 at the time of his death in Babylon. However, the root of all the social change that would eventually influence Europe, the Near East, Egypt, and much of Asia rested in his ability to conquer a lot of territory many territories and doing do it quickly. The question is , how did he do this? ====Initial Conquests====[[File:Alexandermosaic.jpg|thumbnail|left|275px|Figure 1. A mosaic showing Alexander attacking Darius III and his centerline at the battle of Issus.]]Alexander took power after the death of his father, Philip II of Macedon, who had already planned to invade the Persian, Achaemenid Empire.<ref>For more on Alexander's father and his plans of conquests, see: Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly, and Daniel Ogden, eds. 2010. [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199738157/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0199738157&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=40e1c4808c9befad6d185d849b70849b Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives]. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> His first battles were Greece and the Balkans, where he consolidated his power while suppressing several revolts.  Shortly after crossing into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30,000-50,000 troops, Alexander quickly won his first major battle at Granicus.<ref>For more on this battle, see: Matthews, Rupert. 2008. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1862274487/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1862274487&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=5cd69acbd10c5367b89300d97a9862e7 Alexander the Great at the Battle of Granicus]</i>. Stroud: Spellmount.</ref> This victory allowed him to take the western half of Asia Minor. After a few sieges and taking Sardis, one of the most important cities in Asia Minor, he proceeded toward Syria. He encountered the Persian King Darius III in 333 at Issus's battle.<ref> For more on the battle of Issus, see Delbrück, Hans. 1975. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0803265867/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0803265867&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f94cfc51938674926b5abff31bc432d5 History of the Art of War]</i>. Lincoln, Neb: University of Nebraska Press/ Bison Book, pg. 191. </ref> This is the first major battle he had with the Persian king, and once again, Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking by outflanking the Persian army through his cavalry. He made a direct attack on the Persian king's centerline, where this key moment in the battle became a famous Roman-era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1). ====The Levant, Syria, and Egypt====After the battle of Issus, Alexander took the Levant and the coastal Mediterranean cities, which were important trading cities and allowed the Achaemenids to derive much of their wealth, establish their navy, and proceed into Egypt. In Syria and the Levant, his only major encounters were the sieges of Tyre and Gaza in 332 BC.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in the Levant and Syria, see: Freeman, Philip. 2011. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1416592814/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1416592814&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f5c583c6ae9445145f4140977f336b3f Alexander the Great]</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster, pg. 26. </ref> In Egypt, he was quickly accepted by the local population, as the Egyptians had revolted against the Achaemenids not long before Alexander and, therefore, saw this as an opportunity for new leadership.

Here, he became considered Amun's son, the chief of the Egyptian pantheon, further exalting him in his new subjects' eyes. Alexander also began the process of founding cities, the most famous of which was Alexandria. Its position along the Mediterranean reflects a key change, where Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean worlds would be more strongly integrated into culture and trade in the centuries to come.<ref> For more on Alexander's time in Egypt, Bowman, Alan K. 1996. [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520205316/ref=as_li_tl?ie=Initial ConquestsUTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520205316&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b3b436dd2cc5146e4b70f06b8ab1d48b Egypt after the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642] ; from Alexander to the Arab Conquest. 2. paperback printing. Berkeley, Calif.: Univ. of California Press, pg. 22</ref> That was Alexander's intention from the outset, showing that he likely had long-term, strategic thinking about the nature and future of his conquered lands long after his own time.

Alexander took power after the death ====Battle of his father, Philip II Gaugamela and Fall of Macedon, who had already planned to invade the Persian, Achaemenid EmpireAchaemenids====[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|left|thumbnail|Figure 2.<ref>For more on The extent of Alexander's father and empire after his plans of conquestswars with the Persians, see: Carney, Elizabeth Donnellyin Central Asia, and Daniel Ogden, edsIndia. 2010. Philip II and ]]The Achaemenids perhaps had one more great chance to defeat Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlivesat Gaugamela's battle near modern-day Erbil. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> His first battles were in Greece and the BalkansOnce again, Alexander's tactics proved decisive where he consolidated his power while suppressing several revolts. Shortly after crossing forces formed a wedge-shaped attack that then tore into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30Darius' center,000-50,000 troops, Alexander quickly won his first major causing the king to flee the battle at Granicuslikely.<ref>For more on With this battlesecure, see: Matthewsall of Mesopotamia fell to Alexander, Rupert. 2008and Alexander entered Babylon's great city without any need for combat. At Babylon, Alexander perhaps decided he would make the Great at city the Battle new capital of Granicushis now vast empire, as it would unite the Greek and Near Eastern worlds more closely. Stroud: Spellmount.</ref> This victory allowed him Alexander then went on to take the western half of Asia Minor. After a few sieges and taking the city of Sardis, one of the most important cities in Asia MinorSusa, he proceeded toward Syria where he encountered the Persian King Darius III in 333 at the battle old capital of Issus.<ref> For more on the battle of IssusPersians, see: Delbrück, Hans. 1975. History of and then the Art ceremonial capital of War. LincolnPersepolis, Neb: University of Nebraska Press/ Bison Book, pg. 191. </ref> This is the first major battle he had with the Persian king and once again which was at least partially burned most likely by Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking by outflanking the Persian army through the use of his cavalry. He made a direct attack on the Persian king's center line, where this key moment in the battle became a famous Roman era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1)troops.

==The LevantOnly one more major battle was fought against the Persians at the Persian Gates battle, Syriaa strategic crossing.<ref>For More on the Battles of Gaugamela and Alexander's later battles against the Persians, see: Wilcken, Ulrich, and Eugene N. Borza. 1967. Alexander the Great. Norton Library. New York: Norton, pg. 60. </ref> After this, Darius III was killed by one of his generals, and Egypt==Achaemenid factions continued to lead a guerilla-style war against Alexander. However, they squabbled between themselves over the remains of their empire.

After This division allowed Alexander to reach Central Asia with only minor resistance easily. He founded many cities along the battle way that gained importance during the rise of Issus, Alexander took the Levant Silk Road. This included the city of Kandahar in Afghanistan and the coastal Mediterranean citieseventually reaching Tajikistan, which were important trading cities and had allowed almost near the Achaemenids to derive much edge of their wealth and establish their navy, and proceeded into EgyptTibet. In Syria His wars continued in Central Asia and the LevantIndia, his only where he initially encountered major encounters were the sieges of Tyre and Gaza in 332 BCresistance.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in the Levant Central Asia and SyriaIndia, see: FreemanRoy, PhilipKaushik. 20112004. Alexander the Great. New York<i>[https: Simon & Schuster, pg//www. 26amazon. <com/gp/product/8178241099/ref> In Egypt, he was quickly accepted by the local population, as the Egyptians had revolted against the Achaemenids not long before =as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=8178241099&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=912065039072f879b4b3dfdca7da078a India’s Historic Battles: From Alexander and, therefore, saw this as an opportunity for new leadership. Here, he became considered the son of Amun, the chief of the Egyptian pantheon, further exalting him in the eyes of his new subjects. Alexander also began the process of founding cities, the most famous of which was Alexandria. It's position along the Mediterranean reflects a key change, where Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean worlds would be more strongly integrated in culture and trade in the centuries Great to come.Kargil]<ref/i> For more on Alexander's time in Egypt, see. Delhi : Bowman, Alan K. 1996. Egypt after the PharaohsBangalore: 332 BC-AD 642 Permanent Black ; from Alexander to the Arab Conquest. 2. paperback printing. Berkeley, Calif.: Univ. of California PressDistributed by Orient Longman, pg. 2229</ref> That was Alexander's intention from the outset, showing that he likely had long-term, strategic thinking about the nature and future of his conquered lands long after his own time.

==Battle Alexander's battles were the first where European armies had encountered war elephants, which likely caused great fear in his army before eventually overcoming them in battle. Nevertheless, the difficulty of Gaugamela long campaigning and Fall undoubtedly losing many men led to his men tiring of conflict and eventually forcing Alexander to pull his forces back, finally reaching once again Babylon. By the time Alexander finished campaigning, he had created the Achaemenids==first empire that connected Europe with Central Asia (Figure 2).

The Achaemenids perhaps had one more great chance to defeat Alexander at the battle of Gaugamela near modern day Erbil. There, once again ====Why Was He Successful====Alexander's tactics proved decisive where success lay in his forces formed a wedge-shaped attack that then tore into Darius' centermilitary genius, causing the king knowing how to likely flee the use his cavalry and troops precisely at key moments in battle. With this battle secure, all of Mesopotamia fell to Alexander and the great city of Babylon was entered by Alexander without any need for combat. It is at Babylon that Alexander perhaps decided seemed he would make was close to defeat several times but could use the city situation to his new capital of advantage by luring his now vast empire, as it would unit the Greek and Near Eastern worlds more closelyenemies into a deeper trap. Alexander then went on to take Susa, the old capital of the PersiansFurthermore, his troops were well trained in holding their positions and then the ceremonial capital of Persepolis, which was at least partially burned most likely by Alexander's troops. Only one more major battle was fought against the Persians at the not panicking in battle of the Persian Gates, a strategic crossing.<ref>For more on the Battles battle tactics of Gaugamela and Alexander's later battles against the Persians, see: Wilcken, UlrichBose, and Eugene NPartha Sarathi. Borza2004. 1967. Alexander the Great. Norton Library. New York<i>[https: Norton, pg//www. 60amazon. <com/gp/product/B01FJ16XNM/ref> After this, Darius III was killed by one of his own generals and Achaemenid factions continued to lead a guerilla style war against =as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B01FJ16XNM&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=641707a6856af1049e12d1340ff7334f Alexander, although they squabbled between themselves over the remains Great’s Art of their empire. This led Alexander to easily reach Central Asia with only minor resistance, where he founded many cities along Strategy: Lessons from the way that gained importance during the rise of the Silk Road. This included the city of Kandhar in Afghanistan and eventually reaching Tajikistan, almost near the edge of Tibet. His wars continued in Central Asia and India, where he initially encountered major resistance.Great Empire Builder]<ref/i> For more on Alexander's campaigns in Central Asia and India, see: Roy, Kaushik. 2004. India’s Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil. Delhi : BangaloreLondon: Permanent Black ; Distributed by Orient Longman, pgProfile. 29</ref> Alexander's battles were However, a lot of the first where European armies success had encountered war elephants, which likely caused great fear in his army before eventually overcoming them in battle. Nevertheless, the difficulty of long campaigning and undoubtedly loss of many men led little to his men tiring of battle and eventually forcing do with Alexander to pull his forces back, eventually reaching once again Babylon. By but the time Alexander finished campaigning, he had created the first empire that connected Europe with Central Asia (Figure 2)Achaemenid Empire's nature.

[[File:MacedonEmpireThe Achaemenids were perhaps the most successful empire up to that point.jpg|left|thumbnail|Figure 2They had succeeded in uniting a vast territory and genuinely integrating it into a cohesive realm that traded extensively and had well-maintained roads. The extent Achaemenid state was prosperous, and people had by then began to move and live in areas far from their homelands. The world, in essence, had become smaller thanks to many of their tolerant policies.  While it is true that Egypt and some other regions had revolted against them, many had benefited from the Achaemenids. Therefore, it is no wonder that Alexander's empire after marries Persian royalty and eventually takes on the regalia of the Achaemenid kings. This is also why he had planned for Babylon to be his wars with new capital. It was one of the Persians, chief cities and capitals of the Achaemenid Empire despite being in Central AsiaMesopotamia. Commerce had now become the glue that bound many regions, and IndiaAlexander understood this. This probably led to his men resenting Alexander's penchant for the Achaemenids, as the Greeks still held beliefs that the Persians were not on the same level as them.]]

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[[Category:Near East History]][[Category:Ancient Egyptian Greek History]][[Category: Hellenistic Period]][[Category:Alexander the Great]]Updated January 18, 2019