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The people of ancient Mesopotamia practiced a religion that modern scholars are only just now beginning to understand and the . The physical focal point of their religion were was the monumental, triangular structures known as ziggurats. Today, many people like to compare ziggurats – which is derived from the ancient Akkadian word for the structures, <i>ziggurratu</i> – with their counterparts , the pyramids in Egypt. Although both pyramids and ziggurats were constructed during the same time period, they served different functions and were built using different methods and from different materials. Ziggurats were also built over a much longer period than Egyptian pyramids , and most importantly, ziggurats were built by a plethora of different people who inhabited ancient Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia, unlike Egypt, was full of disparate and , at times , warring ethnic groups. Still, but they all followed a similar religion and built ziggurats to appease their gods and as signs of assign temporal power.

The fact that ziggurat construction took place over such a long period – from the third millennium until the sixth century BC<ref> Kuhrt, Amélie. <i> The Ancient Near East: so many different groups of people did c. 3000-330 BC.</i> Volume 2. (London: Routledge, 2010), p. 547</ref> and was done by so many different groups of people is an indicator of the importance of these colossal structures. An examination of the various dynasties that came to rule Mesopotamia shows that ziggurats were important for a number of several reasons: they served as a way for the people to connect to their most important gods, they provided a focal point for the secular community, and they also acted as a visible and tangible sign of a king’s power. Any king worth his salt in ancient Mesopotamia had to build a ziggurat that could be seen for miles around, which would ultimately serve to immortalize him for posterity.

===The Purpose and Construction of How were the Ziggurats=Built? ==[[File: Ziggurats.jpg|300px250px|thumbnail|rightleft|Map Depicting the Distribution of Known Ziggurats in Ancient Mesopotamia: Note that Most Are in the Fertile Area area between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers]]The development of ziggurats, like most monumental building in the ancient world, was a long process that took hundreds of years to reach its maturity. Unfortunately, there is no known extant text that explains precisely what ziggurats were intended to symbolize, but based on references to the structures in Sumerian and Akkadian language texts, modern scholars have determined that the ancient Mesopotamians believed they were the earthly homes of their many deities. <ref> Mieroop, Marc van de. <i>A History of the Ancient Near East: ca. 3000-323 BC.</i> 2nd ed. (London: Blackwell, 2007), p. 182</ref>

The Sumerians were Like the first ethnic group to bring civilization to Mesopotamia and they were also most monumental building in the first people to build ancient world, ziggurats in the southern portion ' development was a long process that took hundreds of that landyears to reach its maturity. Unfortunately, which there is generally no known as Sumer. It was during extant text that explains precisely what is known as the Uruk Period (ca. 3500-2900 BC) – named for the city where civilization first began in Mesopotamia – when temples began ziggurats were intended to be built that can be considered “archaic” or proto-zigguratssymbolize. EssentiallyStill, the first of these ziggurats were comprised of a simple tower built based on top of a platform. One of references to the first proto-ziggurats was known as the “White Templestructures in Sumerian and Akkadian language texts,” which towered forty feet above modern scholars have determined that the city of Urukancient Mesopotamians believed they were their many deities' earthly homes. <ref> FrankfortMieroop, HenriMarc van de. <i>The Art and Architecture A History of the Ancient OrientNear East: ca. 3000-323 BC.</i> 2nd ed. (New Haven, ConnecticutLondon: Yale University PressBlackwell, 19962007), p. 20182</ref>

Later, true The Sumerians were the first ethnic group to bring civilization to Mesopotamia. They were also the first people to build ziggurats would dwarf these early ones in size, but the meaningsouthern portion of that land, style, and construction methods used to make them were established during this early period by the Sumeriansgenerally known as Sumer. It was also during this early period when what is known as the secular, along with Uruk Period (ca. 3500-2900 BC) – named for the religious importance of ziggurats was city where civilization first solidified. Modern archaeological excavations began in Mesopotamia have determined – when temples began to be built that can be considered “archaic” or proto-ziggurats were often . Essentially, the first buildings constructed in of these ziggurats comprised a simple tower built on top of a settlement platform. One of the first proto-ziggurats was known as the “White Temple,” which towered forty feet aboveUruk'se the city. <ref> Frankfort, Henri. <i>The Art and that they in fact provided much Architecture of the impetus for early urban development in MesopotamiaAncient Orient. <ref/i> Kuhrt(New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1996), p. 2520</ref> As Mesopotamian cities grew in size, ziggurats were also at the center of the growth.

As mentioned aboveLater, true ziggurats would dwarf these early ones in size, but the meaning, style, a ziggurat was believed and construction methods used to be the earthly home of make them were established during this early period by the god or goddess for whom it was dedicatedSumerians. The concept It was certainly not unique among pre-modern religions, but what also during this early period when the secular and the religious importance of ziggurats were meant to symbolize wasfirst solidified. The first Modern archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia have determined that ziggurats were simple structures; most were built on top of hills or large moundsoften the first buildings constructed in a settlement. They, in fact, which were believed to symbolize a mountain with the top room being the actual abode provided much of the god or goddessimpetus for early urban development in Mesopotamia. <ref> FrankfortKuhrt, p. 2125</ref> As history progressed and more resources and better building techniques became availableMesopotamian cities grew in size, ziggurats became much larger and more intricate. The higher a ziggurat went, the closer one was to god was the belief. A king would take special pride in a ziggurat built during his reign and would often name the monuments. For instance, the Ziggurat of Enlil were also at Nippur was known as the “House of the Mountain, Mountain center of the Storm, and Bond Between Heaven and Earthgrowth.” <ref> Frankfort, p. 21</ref>

Besides functioning as == What was the purpose of the Ziggurats?==As mentioned above, a ziggurat was believed to be the god or goddess's earthly home of a particular deityto whom it was dedicated. The concept was certainly not unique among pre-modern religions, but what ziggurats were meant to symbolize was. The first ziggurats were part simple structures; most were built on top of larger temple complexes where young men would study in scribal schools and some hills or large mounds, which were believed to symbolize a mountain with the top room being the actual abode of the world’s first astronomers observed the celestial bodiesgod or goddess. <ref> Frankfort, p. 2021</ref> Under As history progressed and more resources and better building techniques became available, ziggurats became much larger and more intricate. The higher a ziggurat went, the closer one was to god was the shade of belief. A king would take special pride in a ziggurat built during his reign and often name the towering zigguratsmonuments. For instance, Mesopotamian scholars developed advanced math, even formulating the concept Ziggurat of Enlil at Nippur was known as the “House of fractionsthe Mountain, although all Mountain of their math the Storm, and science was practical Bond Between Heaven and not theoretical as it is todayEarth. ” <ref> Soden, Wolfram von. <i>The Ancient Orient: An Introduction to the Study of the Ancient Near East.</i> (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, 1994)Frankfort, p. 14621</ref>

Mesopotamians took Besides functioning as the knowledge they learned at ziggurat temple complexes to create bigger and more intricate ziggurats. Although earthly home of a particular deity, ziggurats were truly impressive monuments to behold, they have for the most part not stood the test of timelarger temple complexes where young men would study in scribal schools. Unlike Some of the pyramids, which were made of stone, ziggurats were made primarily of mud brick and clay with some stoneworld’s first astronomers observed the celestial bodies. <ref> KuhrtFrankfort, p. 34120</ref> Unfortunately, despite being constructed with sound methods and mathematical precision, Under the core material shade of clay and mud brick led to the demise of nearly every ziggurat in Mesopotamia. Todaytowering ziggurats, Mesopotamian scholars developed advanced math, only even formulating the ziggurats that have been preserved by modern antiquities services have survived and oftentimes only the parts made concept of stone. With that saidfractions, the ephemeral nature although all of ziggurat building material their math and science was practical and not enough theoretical as it is today. <ref> Soden, Wolfram von. <i>The Ancient Orient: An Introduction to stop numerous kings from several dynasties from constructing ziggurats and improving on the techniques Study of their predecessorsthe Ancient Near East.</i> (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, 1994), p.146</ref>

==How did the Ziggurats advance ancient construction techniques? =A Chronology =Mesopotamians took the knowledge they learned at ziggurat temple complexes to create bigger and more intricate ziggurats. Although ziggurats were awe-inspiring monuments to behold, they have, for the most part, not stood the test of time. Unlike the pyramids made of stone, ziggurats were made primarily of Some Notable mud, brick, and clay with some stone. <ref> Kuhrt, p. 341</ref>  Unfortunately, despite being constructed with sound methods and mathematical precision, the core material of clay and mud-brick led to the demise of nearly every ziggurat in Mesopotamia. Today, only the ziggurats that have been preserved by modern antiquities services have survived, and oftentimes only the parts made of stone. With that said, the ephemeral nature of ziggurat building material was not enough to stop numerous kings from several dynasties from constructing ziggurats and improving their predecessors' techniques. == When were the Ziggurats=Built? ==

As noted above, the earliest ziggurats were built by the Sumerians in the southern region of Mesopotamia in the third millennium BC. At that time, Mesopotamia was essentially divided into several independent and often competing city-states until the Third Dynasty of Ur – named for the home city of the dynasty – was established by Ur-Nammu (ruled ca. 2112-2095 BC). <ref> Mieroop, p. 75</ref> Ur-Nammu unified the region through force, but then set about to legitimize his rule, and that of his dynasty, through a variety of various measures, one of which was the construction of the Ziggurat of Ur. The ziggurat was dedicated to the moon-god and stood at the center of a massive temple complex that dominated the Ur's city of Ur. <ref> Frankfort, p. 104</ref> The size of the Ziggurat of Ur was so much more massive than any of its predecessors – its base measures 190 by 130 feet , and although only two levels remain today, scholars believe that there was once a the third level. <ref> Frankfort, p. 104</ref> When the Third Dynasty of Ur collapsed, the Sumerians disappeared as a people by assimilating with their other Mesopotamian neighbors, but the importance of ziggurat building continued with other ethnic groups that came to rule Mesopotamia.

After the decline of the Sumerians, the cultural focus of Mesopotamia shifted northward to the region around the city of Babylon, which was known as Babylonia. It was in and around Babylon where kings of the Amorite and Kassite ethnic groups built their ziggurats to honor their gods and to express their political legitimacy to the people. One of the more impressive ziggurats was built by a Kassite king named Kurigalzu I (reigned sometime in the early fourteenth century BC) in a newly founded city. The name of the city was Dur<dh-Kurigalzu (“Kurigalzuville”), which was located in the northern area of Babylonia. The ziggurat formed the center piece in a large palace and temple complex, much like its predecessors in southern Mesopotamia. <ref> Mieroop, p. 176<ad/ref> The construction of the city of Dur-Kurigalzu on virgin soil and the accompanying ziggurat were meant to appease the Babylonian god Marduk, no doubt, but also to legitimize the reign of the enigmatic and poorly documented Kurigalzu I. As time went on in ancient Mesopotamia, the political importance of ziggurats continued to increase – kings continued to build bigger and more impressive ziggurats as testaments to their greatness.

Among After the numerous different peoples to engage in ziggurat building in ancient decline of the Sumerians, Mesopotamia, the Elamites may have been the most interesting. Located just 's cultural focus shifted northward to the east of Mesopotamia proper, region around the region city of Elam nonetheless became integrated into the Mesopotamian system at an early date. <ref> KuhrtBabylon, pwhich was known as Babylonia. 25</ref> By the fifteenth century BC, the Elamites were major players It was in the power struggle in the region and had established a dynasty that was based around the city Susa. The Elamite Babylon where kings followed of the precedent established by the Sumerian Amorite and Babylonian kings by building Kassite ethnic groups built their ziggurats for to honor their primary gods and as a way to legitimize express their dynastiespolitical legitimacy to the people. In One of the more impressive ziggurats was built by a move similar to that of Kassite king named Kurigalzu I, (reigned sometime in the Elamite king Untash-Napirisha (ruled ca. 1340-1300 early fourteenth century BC) in a newly founded a new city named after him – Al-Untash-Napirisha – with a large ziggurat being the center piece. The ziggurat city's name was dedicated to two gods: NapirishaDur-Kurigalzu (“Kurigalzuville”), which was located in the primary god northern area of Babylonia. The ziggurat formed the Elamites centerpiece in a large palace and Inshushinaktemple complex, much like its predecessors in southern Mesopotamia. <ref> Mieroop, p. 176</ref> The construction of the patron god city of Susa. Millions of mud clay bricks Dur-Kurigalzu on virgin soil and the accompanying ziggurat were stacked in several rows meant to make appease the Ziggurat of Al-Untash-NapirishaBabylonian god Marduk, which not only made it one of the largestno doubt, but also one to legitimize the reign of the best preserved ziggurats enigmatic and poorly documented Kurigalzu I. As time went on in history. <ref> Mieroopancient Mesopotamia, pziggurats' political importance continued to increase – kings continued to build bigger and more impressive ziggurats as testaments to their greatness. 186</ref>

The first millennium BC saw Among the political and cultural energy of numerous different peoples to engage in ziggurat building in ancient Mesopotamia migrate once more , the Elamites may have been the most interesting. Located just to the northeast of Mesopotamia proper, this time to the Elam's region of Assyria on and around nonetheless became integrated into the Tigris RiverMesopotamian system at an early date. When <ref> Kuhrt, p. 25</ref> By the fifteenth century BC, the Assyrians Elamites were not busy conquering major players in the rest of power struggle in the Near East, they were building new cities such as Nineveh, Assur, region and Nimrudestablished a dynasty based around the city Susa. Most of The Elamite kings followed the precedent established by the major Assyrian cities had Sumerian and Babylonian kings by building ziggurats, which were dedicated to for their primary deities – Assur gods and Ishtar – but also served as a visible reminder way to legitimize their dynasties. In a move similar to that of Assyrian supremacy in Kurigalzu I, the region. Assurnasirpal II Elamite king Untash-Napirisha (ruled 853ca. 1340-859 1300 BC) chose to build his founded a new city named after him – Al-Untash-Napirisha – with a large ziggurat in being the city of Nimrud<ref> Mieroop, pcenterpiece. 233</ref>The ziggurat was dedicated to two gods: Napirisha, but unfortunately, like with most ziggurats and all Assyrian zigguratsthe primary god of the Elamites, nothing remains. The fourth century BC Greek general and historian, XenophonInshushinak, wrote what was probably the last account patron god of Susa. Millions of mud clay bricks were stacked in several rows to make the Ziggurat of Nimrud when he Al-Untash-Napirisha, which made it one of the largest and his contingent one of Greek mercenaries passed by it the best-preserved ziggurats in 399 BChistory. Xenophon noted: “Near the city there was a pyramid of stone, a hundred feet broad, and two hundred feet high.” <ref> Xenophon. <i> The Persian Expedition.</i> Translated by Rex WarnerMieroop, p. (London: Penguin, 1972), Book III, 4186</ref> It is worth pointing out that Xenophon only viewed the remains of the ziggurat, which means that it was probably much taller when it was operational.

Assurnasirpal II’s Assyrian successors continued The first millennium BC saw the tradition political and cultural energy of ziggurat buildingMesopotamia migrate once more to the north, but none put forth efforts as impressive as Sargon II’s (reigned 721-705 BC)this time to Assyria's region on and around the Tigris River. Like Kurigalzu I in Babylon and Untash-Napirisha in ElamWhen the Assyrians were not busy conquering the Near East's rest, Sargon II commissioned a they were building new city to be builtcities such as Nineveh, Dur-Sharrukin (“Sargonville”)Assur, in order to impress the gods as well as his friends and foesNimrud. The city was enclosed by a brick wall and Most of the royal palace major Assyrian cities had ziggurats dedicated to their primary deities – Assur and Ishtar –and served as a visible reminder of Assyrian supremacy in the temples, including the region. Assurnasirpal II (ruled 853-859 BC) chose to build his ziggurat, were enclosed by yet another wall. Moderns scholars believe that in the Ziggurat city of Dur-Sharrukin stood 143 feet high and had up to seven different levels. Nimrud<ref> FrankfortMieroop, p. 150233</ref> The , but unfortunately, like with most ziggurats and all Assyrian ziggurats, nothing remains. In the fourth century BC, Greek general and historian Xenophon wrote what was probably the last account of the Ziggurat of Dur-Sharrukin represented a change Nimrud when he and his contingent of Greek mercenaries passed by it in ziggurat building style as it was connected directly to the royal palace399 BC. The reason for Xenophon noted: “Near the ziggurat’s connection to the royal palace city, there was related to the increased ritual duties a pyramid of the Assyrian kingstone, a hundred feet broad, who was the and two hundred feet high priest of their religion as well as the commander in chief of their armies. ” <ref> FrankfortXenophon. <i> The Persian Expedition.</i> Translated by Rex Warner. (London: Penguin, p. 1491972), Book III, 4</ref>It is worth pointing out that Xenophon only viewed the remains of the ziggurat, which means that it was probably much taller when it was operational.

===The Last Ziggurat===[[File: Etemenanki_Berlin.jpg|300px|thumbnail|right|Modern Depiction of Assurnasirpal II’s Assyrian successors continued the Etemenanki Ziggurat in Babylon]]The culmination of centuries tradition of ziggurat construction took place during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II building, but none put forth efforts as impressive as Sargon II’s (ruled 604reigned 721-562 705 BC). Nebuchadnezar Like Kurigalzu I in Babylon and Untash-Napirisha in Elam, Sargon II is known to many as commissioned a “bad guy” from the Old Testament book of Danielnew city, but he was actually a very active king who led a new dynastyDur-Sharrukin (“Sargonville”), referred to impress the gods as well as his friends and foes. A brick wall enclosed the Neo-Babylonian Dynastycity, to prominence in and the Near East. The crowning achievement of Nebuchadnezzar II’s reign was royal palace and the construction of temples, including the Etemenanki Ziggurat in Babylonziggurat, were enclosed by yet another wall. Etemenanki is translated from ancient Akkadian as Moderns scholars believe that the “House Ziggurat of the Frontier between Heaven Dur-Sharrukin stood 143 feet high and Earth,”had up to seven different levels. <ref> KuhrtFrankfort, p. 593150</ref> which again demonstrates The Ziggurat of Dur-Sharrukin represented a change in ziggurat building style as it was connected directly to the royal palace. The reason for the ziggurat’s connection between ziggurats and to the heavens. The ziggurat royal palace was dedicated related to Mardukthe increased ritual duties of the Assyrian king, who was the patron god high priest of their religion and the city commander in chief of Babylontheir armies. <ref> Frankfort, p. 203149</ref>

Although nothing remains == When was The Last Ziggurat built? ==[[File: Etemenanki_Berlin.jpg|250px|thumbnail|left|Modern Depiction of the Etemenanki Ziggurat, its greatness inspired awe in people from far outside Mesopotamia. Babylon]]The fifth century BC Greek historian, Herodotus, wrote culmination of centuries of it stating, “on ziggurat construction took place during the summit reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (ruled 604-562 BC). Nebuchadnezzar II is known to many as a “bad guy” from the topmost tower stands Old Testament book of Daniel. Still, he was actually a great temple with very active king who led a fine large couch new dynasty, referred to as the Neo-Babylonian Dynasty, to prominence in it”<ref> Herodotusthe Near East. <i> The Historiescrowning achievement of Nebuchadnezzar II’s reign was the construction of the Etemenanki Ziggurat in Babylon.Etemenanki is translated from ancient Akkadian as the “House of the Frontier between Heaven and Earth,”</iref> Translated by Aubrey de SélincourtKuhrt, p. (London: Penguin Books, 2003), Book I, 181593</ref> which again demonstrates the connection between ziggurats and it was more than likely the inspiration for the legendary “Tower of Babel” described in Genesis 11:1-9heavens. After Babylon The ziggurat was conquered by the Achaemenid Persians in 539 BCdedicated to Marduk, who was the era patron god of ziggurat building came to an end. Despite controlling Mesopotamia for over 200 years, the Persians did not carry on the tradition city of ziggurat building, although they left most of the extant ziggurats intactBabylon. Eventually<ref> Frankfort, all of the ziggurats fell into disuse during the Seleucid Dynasty and the desert claimed most as casualitiesp.203</ref>

=Although nothing remains of the Etemenanki Ziggurat, its greatness inspired awe in people from far outside Mesopotamia. The fifth century BC Greek historian, Herodotus, wrote of it stating, “on the summit of the topmost tower stands a great temple with a fine large couch in it”<ref> Herodotus. <i> The Histories.</i> Translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt. (London: Penguin Books, 2003), The book I, 181</ref>, was more than likely the inspiration for the legendary “Tower of Babel” described in Genesis 11:1-9. After Achaemenid Persians conquered Babylons in 539 BC, the era of ziggurat building came to an end. Despite controlling Mesopotamia for over 200 years, the Persians did not carry on ziggurat building tradition, although they left most of the extant ziggurats intact. Eventually, all of the ziggurats fell into disuse during the Seleucid Dynasty, and the desert claimed most as casualties. ==Conclusion===Ziggurats enjoyed a long history and an important place in ancient Mesopotamian religion and culture. From their inception in southern Mesopotamia during the Uruk Period, until the collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Dynasty in the sixth century BC, ziggurats provided an important focal point for the religious activities of the various ethnic groups of Mesopotamia. Ziggurats were also vital in the early urbanization of Mesopotamia as communities formed around the important religious buildings. Perhaps just as important as the religious aspects, and possibly even more so, was the political legitimacy and gravitas a king or a dynasty could gain by building a ziggurat. {{Mediawiki: Religious History}}