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The people of ancient Mesopotamia practiced a religion that modern scholars are only just now beginning to understand and the . The physical focal point of their religion were was the monumental, triangular structures known as ziggurats. Today, many people like to compare ziggurats – which is derived from the ancient Akkadian word for the structures, <i>ziggurratu</i> – with their counterparts , the pyramids in Egypt. Although both pyramids and ziggurats were constructed during the same time period, they served different functions and were built using different methods and from different materials. Ziggurats were also built over a much longer period than Egyptian pyramids , and most importantly, ziggurats were built by a plethora of different people who inhabited ancient Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia, unlike Egypt, was full of disparate and , at times , warring ethnic groups. Still, but they all followed a similar religion and built ziggurats to appease their gods and as signs of assign temporal power.

The fact that ziggurat construction took place over such a long period – from the third millennium until the sixth century BC<ref> Kuhrt, Amélie. <i> The Ancient Near East: so many different groups of people did c. 3000-330 BC.</i> Volume 2. (London: Routledge, 2010), p. 547</ref> and was done by so many different groups of people is an indicator of the importance of these colossal structures. An examination of the various dynasties that came to rule Mesopotamia shows that ziggurats were important for a number of several reasons: they served as a way for the people to connect to their most important gods, they provided a focal point for the secular community, and they also acted as a visible and tangible sign of a king’s power. Any king worth his salt in ancient Mesopotamia had to build a ziggurat that could be seen for miles around, which would ultimately serve to immortalize him for posterity.

===The Purpose and Construction of How were the Ziggurats=Built? ==[[File: Ziggurats.jpg|300px250px|thumbnail|rightleft|Map Depicting the Distribution of Known Ziggurats in Ancient Mesopotamia: Note that Most Are in the Fertile Area area between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers]]The development of ziggurats, like most monumental building in the ancient world, was a long process that took hundreds of years to reach its maturity. Unfortunately, there is no known extant text that explains precisely what ziggurats were intended to symbolize, but based on references to the structures in Sumerian and Akkadian language texts, modern scholars have determined that the ancient Mesopotamians believed they were the earthly homes of their many deities. <ref> Mieroop, Marc van de. <i>A History of the Ancient Near East: ca. 3000-323 BC.</i> 2nd ed. (London: Blackwell, 2007), p. 182</ref>

The Sumerians were Like the first ethnic group to bring civilization to Mesopotamia and they were also most monumental building in the first people to build ancient world, ziggurats in the southern portion ' development was a long process that took hundreds of that landyears to reach its maturity. Unfortunately, which there is generally no known as Sumer. It was during extant text that explains precisely what is known as the Uruk Period (ca. 3500-2900 BC) – named for the city where civilization first began in Mesopotamia – when temples began ziggurats were intended to be built that can be considered “archaic” or proto-zigguratssymbolize. EssentiallyStill, the first of these ziggurats were comprised of a simple tower built based on top of a platform. One of references to the first proto-ziggurats was known as the “White Templestructures in Sumerian and Akkadian language texts,” which towered forty feet above modern scholars have determined that the city of Urukancient Mesopotamians believed they were their many deities' earthly homes. <ref> FrankfortMieroop, HenriMarc van de. <i>The Art and Architecture A History of the Ancient OrientNear East: ca. 3000-323 BC.</i> 2nd ed. (New Haven, ConnecticutLondon: Yale University PressBlackwell, 19962007), p. 20182</ref>

Later, true The Sumerians were the first ethnic group to bring civilization to Mesopotamia. They were also the first people to build ziggurats would dwarf these early ones in size, but the meaningsouthern portion of that land, style, and construction methods used to make them were established during this early period by the Sumeriansgenerally known as Sumer. It was also during this early period when what is known as the secular, along with Uruk Period (ca. 3500-2900 BC) – named for the religious importance of ziggurats was city where civilization first solidified. Modern archaeological excavations began in Mesopotamia have determined – when temples began to be built that can be considered “archaic” or proto-ziggurats were often . Essentially, the first buildings constructed in of these ziggurats comprised a simple tower built on top of a settlement platform. One of the first proto-ziggurats was known as the “White Temple,” which towered forty feet aboveUruk'se the city. <ref> Frankfort, Henri. <i>The Art and that they in fact provided much Architecture of the impetus for early urban development in MesopotamiaAncient Orient. <ref/i> Kuhrt(New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1996), p. 2520</ref> As Mesopotamian cities grew in size, ziggurats were also at the center of the growth.

As mentioned aboveLater, true ziggurats would dwarf these early ones in size, but the meaning, style, a ziggurat was believed and construction methods used to be the earthly home of make them were established during this early period by the god or goddess for whom it was dedicatedSumerians. The concept It was certainly not unique among pre-modern religions, but what also during this early period when the secular and the religious importance of ziggurats were meant to symbolize wasfirst solidified. The first Modern archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia have determined that ziggurats were simple structures; most were built on top of hills or large moundsoften the first buildings constructed in a settlement. They, in fact, which were believed to symbolize a mountain with the top room being the actual abode provided much of the god or goddessimpetus for early urban development in Mesopotamia. <ref> FrankfortKuhrt, p. 2125</ref> As history progressed and more resources and better building techniques became availableMesopotamian cities grew in size, ziggurats became much larger and more intricate. The higher a ziggurat went, the closer one was to god was the belief. A king would take special pride in a ziggurat built during his reign and would often name the monuments. For instance, the Ziggurat of Enlil were also at Nippur was known as the “House of the Mountain, Mountain center of the Storm, and Bond Between Heaven and Earthgrowth.” <ref> Frankfort, p. 21</ref>

Besides functioning as == What was the purpose of the Ziggurats?==As mentioned above, a ziggurat was believed to be the god or goddess's earthly home of a particular deityto whom it was dedicated. The concept was certainly not unique among pre-modern religions, but what ziggurats were meant to symbolize was. The first ziggurats were part simple structures; most were built on top of larger temple complexes where young men would study in scribal schools and some hills or large mounds, which were believed to symbolize a mountain with the top room being the actual abode of the world’s first astronomers observed the celestial bodiesgod or goddess. <ref> Frankfort, p. 2021</ref> Under As history progressed and more resources and better building techniques became available, ziggurats became much larger and more intricate. The higher a ziggurat went, the closer one was to god was the shade of belief. A king would take special pride in a ziggurat built during his reign and often name the towering zigguratsmonuments. For instance, Mesopotamian scholars developed advanced math, even formulating the concept Ziggurat of Enlil at Nippur was known as the “House of fractionsthe Mountain, although all Mountain of their math the Storm, and science was practical Bond Between Heaven and not theoretical as it is todayEarth. ” <ref> Soden, Wolfram von. <i>The Ancient Orient: An Introduction to the Study of the Ancient Near East.</i> (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, 1994)Frankfort, p. 14621</ref>

Mesopotamians took Besides functioning as the knowledge they learned at ziggurat temple complexes to create bigger and more intricate ziggurats. Although earthly home of a particular deity, ziggurats were truly impressive monuments to behold, they have for the most part not stood the test of timelarger temple complexes where young men would study in scribal schools. Unlike Some of the pyramids, which were made of stone, ziggurats were made primarily of mud brick and clay with some stoneworld’s first astronomers observed the celestial bodies. <ref> KuhrtFrankfort, p. 34120</ref> Unfortunately, despite being constructed with sound methods and mathematical precision, Under the core material shade of clay and mud brick led to the demise of nearly every ziggurat in Mesopotamia. Todaytowering ziggurats, Mesopotamian scholars developed advanced math, only even formulating the ziggurats that have been preserved by modern antiquities services have survived and oftentimes only the parts made concept of stone. With that saidfractions, the ephemeral nature although all of ziggurat building material their math and science was practical and not enough theoretical as it is today. <ref> Soden, Wolfram von. <i>The Ancient Orient: An Introduction to stop numerous kings from several dynasties from constructing ziggurats and improving on the techniques Study of their predecessorsthe Ancient Near East.</i> (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, 1994), p.146</ref>

==How did the Ziggurats advance ancient construction techniques? =A Chronology =Mesopotamians took the knowledge they learned at ziggurat temple complexes to create bigger and more intricate ziggurats. Although ziggurats were awe-inspiring monuments to behold, they have, for the most part, not stood the test of time. Unlike the pyramids made of stone, ziggurats were made primarily of Some Notable mud, brick, and clay with some stone. <ref> Kuhrt, p. 341</ref>  Unfortunately, despite being constructed with sound methods and mathematical precision, the core material of clay and mud-brick led to the demise of nearly every ziggurat in Mesopotamia. Today, only the ziggurats that have been preserved by modern antiquities services have survived, and oftentimes only the parts made of stone. With that said, the ephemeral nature of ziggurat building material was not enough to stop numerous kings from several dynasties from constructing ziggurats and improving their predecessors' techniques. == When were the Ziggurats=Built? ==

As noted above, the earliest ziggurats were built by the Sumerians in the southern region of Mesopotamia in the third millennium BC. At that time, Mesopotamia was essentially divided into several independent and often competing city-states until the Third Dynasty of Ur – named for the home city of the dynasty – was established by Ur-Nammu (ruled ca. 2112-2095 BC). <ref> Mieroop, p. 75</ref> Ur-Nammu unified the region through force, but then set about to legitimize his rule, and that of his dynasty, through a variety of various measures, one of which was the construction of the Ziggurat of Ur. The ziggurat was dedicated to the moon-god and stood at the center of a massive temple complex that dominated the Ur's city of Ur. <ref> Frankfort, p. 104</ref> The size of the Ziggurat of Ur was so much more massive than any of its predecessors – its base measures 190 by 130 feet , and although only two levels remain today, scholars believe that there was once a the third level. <ref> Frankfort, p. 104</ref> When the Third Dynasty of Ur collapsed, the Sumerians disappeared as a people by assimilating with their other Mesopotamian neighbors, but the importance of ziggurat building continued with other ethnic groups that came to rule Mesopotamia. <dh-ad/> After the decline of the Sumerians, Mesopotamia's cultural focus shifted northward to the region around the city of Babylon, which was known as Babylonia. It was in and around Babylon where kings of the Amorite and Kassite ethnic groups built their ziggurats to honor their gods and to express their political legitimacy to the people. One of the more impressive ziggurats was built by a Kassite king named Kurigalzu I (reigned sometime in the early fourteenth century BC) in a newly founded city. The city's name was Dur-Kurigalzu (“Kurigalzuville”), which was located in the northern area of Babylonia. The ziggurat formed the centerpiece in a large palace and temple complex, much like its predecessors in southern Mesopotamia. <ref> Mieroop, p. 176</ref> The construction of the city of Dur-Kurigalzu on virgin soil and the accompanying ziggurat were meant to appease the Babylonian god Marduk, no doubt, but also to legitimize the reign of the enigmatic and poorly documented Kurigalzu I. As time went on in ancient Mesopotamia, ziggurats' political importance continued to increase – kings continued to build bigger and more impressive ziggurats as testaments to their greatness.

After Among the decline of numerous different peoples to engage in ziggurat building in ancient Mesopotamia, the Elamites may have been the Sumerians, most interesting. Located just to the cultural focus east of Mesopotamia shifted northward to the proper, Elam's region around nonetheless became integrated into the city of BabylonMesopotamian system at an early date. <ref> Kuhrt, which was known as Babyloniap. It was 25</ref> By the fifteenth century BC, the Elamites were major players in the power struggle in the region and established a dynasty based around Babylon where the city Susa. The Elamite kings of followed the precedent established by the Amorite Sumerian and Kassite ethnic groups built their Babylonian kings by building ziggurats to honor for their primary gods and as a way to express legitimize their political legitimacy dynasties. In a move similar to the people. One that of Kurigalzu I, the more impressive ziggurats was built by a Kassite Elamite king named Kurigalzu I Untash-Napirisha (reigned sometime in the early fourteenth century ruled ca. 1340-1300 BC) in founded a newly founded new citynamed after him – Al-Untash-Napirisha – with a large ziggurat being the centerpiece. The name ziggurat was dedicated to two gods: Napirisha, the primary god of the Elamites, and Inshushinak, the patron god of Susa. Millions of mud clay bricks were stacked in several rows to make the city was DurZiggurat of Al-Untash-Kurigalzu (“Kurigalzuville”)Napirisha, which was located in made it one of the northern area largest and one of Babylonia. The ziggurat formed the center piece best-preserved ziggurats in a large palace and temple complex, much like its predecessors in southern Mesopotamiahistory. <ref> Mieroop, p. 176186</ref> The construction of the city of Dur-Kurigalzu on virgin soil and the accompanying ziggurat were meant to appease the Babylonian god Marduk, no doubt, but also to legitimize the reign of the enigmatic and poorly documented Kurigalzu I. As time went on in ancient Mesopotamia, the political importance of ziggurats continued to increase – kings continued to build bigger and more impressive ziggurats as testaments to their greatness.

Among The first millennium BC saw the numerous different peoples to engage in ziggurat building in ancient political and cultural energy of Mesopotamia, the Elamites may have been the most interesting. Located just migrate once more to the east of Mesopotamia propernorth, the this time to Assyria's region of Elam nonetheless became integrated into on and around the Mesopotamian system at an early dateTigris River. <ref> Kuhrt, p. 25</ref> By When the Assyrians were not busy conquering the fifteenth century BCNear East's rest, the Elamites they were major players in the power struggle in the region building new cities such as Nineveh, Assur, and had established a dynasty that was based around the city SusaNimrud. The Elamite kings followed Most of the precedent established by the Sumerian and Babylonian kings by building major Assyrian cities had ziggurats for dedicated to their primary gods deities – Assur and Ishtar –and served as a way to legitimize their dynasties. In a move similar to that visible reminder of Kurigalzu I, Assyrian supremacy in the Elamite king Untash-Napirisha region. Assurnasirpal II (ruled ca. 1340853-1300 859 BC) founded a new city named after him – Al-Untash-Napirisha – with a large chose to build his ziggurat being in the center piececity of Nimrud<ref> Mieroop, p. The ziggurat was dedicated to two gods: Napirisha233</ref>, but unfortunately, like with most ziggurats and all Assyrian ziggurats, nothing remains. In the primary god of the Elamites fourth century BC, Greek general and Inshushinak, historian Xenophon wrote what was probably the patron god of Susa. Millions last account of mud clay bricks were stacked in several rows to make the Ziggurat of Al-Untash-Napirisha, which not only made Nimrud when he and his contingent of Greek mercenaries passed by it one of in 399 BC. Xenophon noted: “Near the largestcity, but also one there was a pyramid of the best preserved ziggurats in historystone, a hundred feet broad, and two hundred feet high. ” <ref> MieroopXenophon. <i> The Persian Expedition.</i> Translated by Rex Warner. (London: Penguin, 1972), Book III, p. 1864</ref>It is worth pointing out that Xenophon only viewed the remains of the ziggurat, which means that it was probably much taller when it was operational.

The first millennium Assurnasirpal II’s Assyrian successors continued the tradition of ziggurat building, but none put forth efforts as impressive as Sargon II’s (reigned 721-705 BC saw the political ). Like Kurigalzu I in Babylon and cultural energy of Mesopotamia migrate once more to the northUntash-Napirisha in Elam, Sargon II commissioned a new city, Dur-Sharrukin (“Sargonville”), this time to impress the region of Assyria on gods as well as his friends and around foes. A brick wall enclosed the Tigris River. When city, and the Assyrians were not busy conquering royal palace and the rest of temples, including the Near Eastziggurat, they were building new cities such as Nineveh, Assur, and Nimrudenclosed by yet another wall. Most Moderns scholars believe that the Ziggurat of the major Assyrian cities Dur-Sharrukin stood 143 feet high and had ziggurats, which were dedicated up to their primary deities – Assur and Ishtar – but also served as a visible reminder of Assyrian supremacy in the regionseven different levels. Assurnasirpal II (ruled 853-859 BC) chose to build his ziggurat in the city of Nimrud<ref> MieroopFrankfort, p. 233150</ref>, but unfortunately, like with most ziggurats and all Assyrian ziggurats, nothing remainsThe Ziggurat of Dur-Sharrukin represented a change in ziggurat building style as it was connected directly to the royal palace. The fourth century BC Greek general and historian, Xenophon, wrote what reason for the ziggurat’s connection to the royal palace was probably related to the last account increased ritual duties of the Ziggurat Assyrian king, who was the high priest of Nimrud when he their religion and his contingent of Greek mercenaries passed by it the commander in 399 BC. Xenophon noted: “Near the city there was a pyramid chief of stone, a hundred feet broad, and two hundred feet hightheir armies.” <ref> Xenophon. <i> The Persian ExpeditionFrankfort, p.</i> Translated by Rex Warner. (London: Penguin, 1972), Book III, 4149</ref> It is worth pointing out that Xenophon only viewed the remains of the ziggurat, which means that it was probably much taller when it was operational.

Assurnasirpal II’s Assyrian successors continued == When was The Last Ziggurat built? ==[[File: Etemenanki_Berlin.jpg|250px|thumbnail|left|Modern Depiction of the tradition Etemenanki Ziggurat in Babylon]]The culmination of centuries of ziggurat building, but none put forth efforts as impressive as Sargon II’s construction took place during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (reigned 721ruled 604-705 562 BC). Like Kurigalzu I in Babylon and Untash-Napirisha in ElamNebuchadnezzar II is known to many as a “bad guy” from the Old Testament book of Daniel. Still, Sargon II commissioned he was actually a very active king who led a new city dynasty, referred to be built, Duras the Neo-Sharrukin (“Sargonville”)Babylonian Dynasty, to prominence in order to impress the gods as well as his friends and foesNear East. The city crowning achievement of Nebuchadnezzar II’s reign was enclosed by a brick wall and the royal palace and construction of the temples, including the ziggurat, were enclosed by yet another wallEtemenanki Ziggurat in Babylon. Moderns scholars believe that Etemenanki is translated from ancient Akkadian as the Ziggurat “House of Dur-Sharrukin stood 143 feet high the Frontier between Heaven and had up to seven different levels. Earth,”<ref> FrankfortKuhrt, p. 150593</ref> The Ziggurat of Dur-Sharrukin represented a change in ziggurat building style as it was connected directly to which again demonstrates the connection between ziggurats and the royal palaceheavens. The reason for the ziggurat’s connection to the royal palace ziggurat was related dedicated to the increased ritual duties of the Assyrian kingMarduk, who was the high priest patron god of their religion as well as the commander in chief city of their armiesBabylon. <ref> Frankfort, p. 149203</ref>

===The Last Ziggurat===[[File: Etemenanki_Berlin.jpg|300px|thumbnail|right|Modern Depiction Although nothing remains of the Etemenanki Ziggurat , its greatness inspired awe in Babylon]]people from far outside Mesopotamia. The culmination fifth century BC Greek historian, Herodotus, wrote of centuries of ziggurat construction took place during it stating, “on the reign summit of Nebuchadnezzar II (ruled 604-562 BC). Nebuchadnezar II is known to many as a “bad guy” from the Old Testament book of Daniel, but he was actually topmost tower stands a very active king who led great temple with a new dynasty, referred to as the Neo-Babylonian Dynasty, to prominence fine large couch in the Near Eastit”<ref> Herodotus. <i> The crowning achievement of Nebuchadnezzar II’s reign was the construction of the Etemenanki Ziggurat in BabylonHistories. Etemenanki is translated from ancient Akkadian as the “House of the Frontier between Heaven and Earth,”<ref/i> KuhrtTranslated by Aubrey de Sélincourt. (London: Penguin Books, 2003), p. 593The book I, 181</ref> which again demonstrates , was more than likely the connection between ziggurats and inspiration for the heavenslegendary “Tower of Babel” described in Genesis 11:1-9. The After Achaemenid Persians conquered Babylons in 539 BC, the era of ziggurat was dedicated building came to Mardukan end. Despite controlling Mesopotamia for over 200 years, who was the patron god Persians did not carry on ziggurat building tradition, although they left most of the city extant ziggurats intact. Eventually, all of Babylon. <ref> Frankfortthe ziggurats fell into disuse during the Seleucid Dynasty, pand the desert claimed most as casualties. 203</ref>

Although nothing remains of the Etemenanki Ziggurat, its greatness inspired awe ==Conclusion==Ziggurats enjoyed a long history and an important place in ancient Mesopotamian religion and culture. From their inception in people from far outside southern Mesopotamia. The fifth century BC Greek historian, Herodotus, wrote of it stating, “on during the Uruk Period until the summit collapse of the topmost tower stands a great temple with a fine large couch Neo-Babylonian Dynasty in it”<ref> Herodotus. <i> The Histories.</i> Translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt. (London: Penguin Booksthe sixth century BC, 2003), Book I, 181</ref> and it was more than likely ziggurats provided an important focal point for the inspiration for religious activities the legendary “Tower various ethnic groups of Babel” described in Genesis 11:1-9Mesopotamia. After Babylon was conquered by the Achaemenid Persians Ziggurats were also vital in 539 BC, the era early urbanization of ziggurat building came to an end. Despite controlling Mesopotamia for over 200 years, as communities formed around the Persians did not carry on important religious buildings. Perhaps just as important as the tradition of ziggurat buildingreligious aspects, although they left most of the extant ziggurats intact. Eventuallyand possibly even more so, all of the ziggurats fell into disuse during was the Seleucid Dynasty political legitimacy and the desert claimed most as casualtiesgravitas a king or a dynasty could gain by building a ziggurat.{{Mediawiki: Religious History}}