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==Introduction==__NOTOC__[[File: Karl_(Charles)_XII_of_Sweden.png|300px|thumbnail|left|Charles the XII of Sweden]]The failed invasion of Russia by Hitler and Napoleon are well known. Less well-known is the invasion of Russia by the Swedes under their most famous king, Charles XII. Sweden in 1700 was the greatest Northern European power , and this provoked the jealousy of its neighboursneighbors. This led to the Great Northern War. The culmination of this war was the Swedish monarch’s invasion of Russia and his subsequent defeat by Tsar Peter the Great at Poltava (1709). The failed invasion of the Russian Empire by Charles XII has been largely forgotten but had he succeeded the fate of Europe could have been different. This article discussed the background the Swedish invasion, the military campaign and the defeat of Charles and his army at Poltava. It demonstrates that the failure of the Swedish army’s invasion was due to the geography of Russia, bad luck and the dogged stubbornness of 's loss essentially ensured the Russian people.[[File: Karl XII i Ystad 1715, målning av Johan Heinrich Wedekindt från 1719.jpg|200px|thumb|left| Tsar Peter the Great]]==Background==Today we associate Sweden with liberal values and a peaceful society. It has not been involved in a war since the Napoleonic era. However, in the Early Modern Period the Kingdom of Sweden was one of the powerhouses of Europe and the greatest power in Northern Europe<ref> Peterson, Gary Dean. Warrior kings of Sweden: the rise of an empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (London, McFarland, 2007), p. 2</ref>. Under the House of Vassa the kingdom had expanded greatly. It had emerged as one of the real winners from the Thirty Years War. By the 1660s the Kingdom of Sweden directly controlled the modern states of Finland and the Baltic States. It also had extensive possessions in Northern Germany, Poland and Russia <ref> Peterson, p. 215</ref>. Its fleet also dominated the Baltic. Charles XI of Sweden had managed to defend the extensive Empire and had greatly expanded its influence. This able king died while still a relatively young man. His son became king of Sweden at the age of fifteen. The young monarch belonged to the Royal German House of Palatinate. Charles was the only surviving son of Charles XI and his German wife Ulrika Eleonora the Elder. The young monarch at first had been controlled by a council of regents but at the incredibly young age of fifteen he became the sole ruler of the kingdom. The sight of a mere boy on the Throne of Sweden alerted the neighbours of the Swedes. They all had grievances with the Swedes and resented what they saw as their domination in the Baltic Sea. In 1700, a triple alliance of the kingdoms of Denmark, Poland and Russia launched a three-pronged attack on the Swedes. The Poles and Danes attacked the Swedes in Northern Germany and the Russians attacked them in the Baltics and thus began the Great Northern War. It seemed that the young Swedish monarch would lose his empire but the young man was to prove himself to be a military genius. Charles launched a surprise attack on Copenhagen and knocked the Danes out of the war. Charles then secured major victory over a much larger Russian army in 1700 at the Battle of Narva, when Peter the Great narrowly escaped with his life. Later Charles campaigned in Poland and imposed his choice of king on the country. The Swedes secured devastating victory by Swedish forces under the general Rehnskiöld over the Russians and their Saxon allies at the Battle of Fraustadt in 1706<ref>. Thomas Derry, History of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, and Iceland (2000) p 154</ref>. By that year all the enemies of Charles XII had been vanquished and only Peter the Great remained at war. The Russian Tsar sued for peace but Charles rejected the overtures and decided to invade Russia. By this time, he was popularly known as ‘The Alexander of the West’, a comparison with Alexander the Great <ref> Voltaire. The History of Charles XII (London, Upton House, 1911), p. 34</ref>==Charles XII invasion of Russia, 1708-1709==While Charles was bogged down in the vast Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth the Russian Tsar Peter the Great reformed the Russian military and ironically modeled his army on the Swedish forces. While the Swedes were campaigning in Germany and Poland after 1706 Peter ordered his forces into Ingaria and found a new port that was to become the City of St Petersburg. This gave the Russians an outlet to the sea, from which they could threaten Sweden in the Baltic. Charles was outraged at what he saw as a surprise attack<ref> Voltaire. p. 112</ref>. According to Voltaire, he wanted to annihilate Peter the Great. The Swedish monarch was quoted as saying ‘"I have resolved never to start an unjust war but never to end a legitimate one except by defeating my enemies" <ref> Voltaire, p. 37</ref>. In 1708, he ordered a general invasion of Russia and he decided to ally himself with the rebellious Cossacks who had revolted against Peter in the Ukraine. Ivan Mazepa, Hetman of the Ukrainian Cossacks, had managed to secure a vast area that was independent of the Russians. Charles assembled a large army but at the last minute was obliged to leave some of his troops with the Polish King who was his puppet. In total, the Swedish army was composed of 50,000 men, mostly Swedes, and Finns. Many units were needed to defend Sweden and its extensive Empire. Charles marched his army into Livonia (now Belorussia). The Russians and the Swedes clashed in a great Battle of Holowczyn. Charles was confronted by a huge Russian army that was numerically superior to his own. The Swedish king secured a great victory with only minimal losses. The Russians decided that it was best not to meet the Swedes on the field of battle and they adopted guerrilla and hit and run tactics. At this point, Charles was urged to march on St Petersburg but the young monarch wanted to seize Moscow and put a puppet on the throne. He ordered the troops he had left with the Polish king to join him, no sooner than they had left that his Polish ally faced a general revolt. The reinforcements were attacked by Peter’s army and suffered many casualties and lost many precious cannons. Charles was now reliant on the support of the massive Cossack rebellion led by Mazepa in Ukraine<ref> Derry, p. 116</ref>. The Swedes had been told by the Hetman of the Cossacks that he could provide them with 40,000 men. However, the Russian army was quick to react and they launched a surprise attack on the Cossacks at their capital Batruin in the Ukraine. They did so before the Cossacks could rendezvous with the Swedish army<ref> Hatton, R.M. Charles XII of Sweden (London, MacFarland,1968).The invasion force of Charles was now in the vast Steppes of the Ukraine with little support and an overextended supply line. Winter was approaching and in the cold many, soldiers succumbed to frost bite. The Swedes decided to retreat to their winter camp in Western Ukraine in November 1708. In the following summer of 1709 in a skirmish with some Russians, Charles was wounded and fell into a coma. The leadership of the army passed to Rehnskiöld. The Swedes came across the army of Peter the Great at the fort of Poltava in June 1709. Despite being inferior in numbers they besieged Poltava. Rehnskiöld launched several assaults on the fortifications but all ended in failure, one assault ended in disaster and the entire army retreated in chaos. The Swedish king was by now able to once again lead his men but it was too late. The bulk of the Swedish army retreated to Perevolochna, where they were soon encircled and forced to surrender. Charles XII managed to escape with a small number of followers into Ottoman territory and he later returned to Sweden. The invasion of Russian was a disaster and it spelt the end of the Swedish Empire and marked the advent of Russia onto the European stage as a major power<ref> Hatton,p. 278</ref>.

==Russia and its geography==The sheer scale This war's culmination was the Swedish monarch’s invasion of Russia and its endless Steppes proved simply too much for his subsequent defeat by Tsar Peter the SwedesGreat at Poltava (1709). Like subsequent invaders they struggled in The failed invasion of the vast landscape with its harsh climateRussian Empire by Charles XII has been largely forgotten but had he succeeded, Europe's fate could have been different. The Swedes were inured to Arctic weatherThis article discussed the background of the Swedish invasion, yet even they felt it was extremely challenging fighting in the Ukrainian Plains<ref> Voltairemilitary campaign, and the defeat of Charles and his army at Poltava. It demonstrates that the failure of the Swedish army’s invasion was due to Russia's geography, bad luck, pand the dogged stubbornness of the Russian people. 89</ref> ====Background====Today we associate Sweden with liberal values and a peaceful society. Charles lost many men to It has not been involved in a war since the extreme cold and to frost biteNapoleonic era. FurthermoreHowever, in the Early Modern Period, they were far from home and their supplies were scant. Trying to live off the land Kingdom of Sweden was futile as one of Europe's powerhouses and the Steppes had no real population centres and those who lived there were usually destitutegreatest power in Northern Europe.<ref> HattonPeterson, pGary Dean. 217</refi>. The sheer scale Warrior Kings of Russia meant that Charles army was Sweden: the rise of an empire in a state of near physical collapse when it encountered the enemy at Poltava sixteenth and even if it had won hereseventeenth centuries</i> (London, McFarland, 2007), it seems likely that it would have disintegrated as Napoleon’s Grand Armee had in p. 2</ref> Under the winter House of 1813Vassa, the kingdom had expanded greatly. It had emerged as one of the real winners of the Thirty Years War.==The Cossack Alliance==The Ukrainian Cossacks had been in rebellion against Peter By the 1660s, the Kingdom of Sweden directly controlled Finland's modern states and the Great for some timeBaltic States. Charles It also had entered an alliance with them extensive possessions in the hopes of securing a massive armyNorthern Germany, Poland, and Russia.<ref> Peterson, p. 215</ref> Its fleet also dominated the Baltic. This alliance did not strengthen Charles as he XI of Sweden had hoped it managed to defend the extensive Empire and had only weakened him and his armygreatly expanded its influence. This able king died while still a relatively young man. To link up with His son became king of Sweden at the Cossacks he moved away from age of fifteen. The young monarch belonged to the Royal German House of Palatinate. Charles was the Russian heartland only surviving son of Charles XI and headed into his German wife Ulrika Eleonora the UkraineElder. Furthermore,  A council of regents had controlled the Cossacks young monarch at first, but at the incredibly young age of fifteen, he became the kingdom's sole ruler. The sight of a mere boy on the Throne of Sweden alerted the neighbors of the Swedes. They all had failed to meet him as had original been planned grievances with the Swedes and resented what they had been tardy saw as their domination in their deploymentthe Baltic Sea. The Cossack Hetman was not decisive In 1700, a triple alliance of Denmark's kingdoms, Poland and unwilling to leave his home baseRussia, launched a three-pronged attack on the Swedes. This meant that he did not met up with The Poles and Danes attacked the Swedes but in Northern Germany, and the Russians were able to surround him and his men attacked them in the Baltics and end thus began the Cossacks rebellion<ref> Hatton, pGreat Northern War. 213</ref> It seemed that the young Swedish monarch would lose his empire, but the young man was to prove himself to be a military genius. The alliance for  Charles was launched a disaster surprise attack on Copenhagen and when knocked the Ukrainian Cossacks support failed to materialize Danes out of the invasion was in serious difficultieswar. [[File: ZauerveydNA Petr1UsmirDA19.jpg|200px|thumb|left| Tsar Charles then secured major victory over a much larger Russian army in 1700 at the Battle of Narva, when Peter the Great]]==Bad luck and judgement==narrowly escaped with his life. Later, Charles XII was widely seen as a military genius campaigned in Poland and Voltaire who wrote imposed his biography called him choice of the most remarkable man king on the country. The Swedes secured devastating victory by Swedish forces under general Rehnskiöld over the Russians and their Saxon allies at the Battle of his timeFraustadt in 1706. However<ref>Thomas Derry, he made several serious miscalculations. The first was <i>History of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, and Iceland</i> (2000) p 154</ref> By that he should have invaded Russia after his great victory year, all the enemies of Charles XII had been vanquished, and only Peter the Great remained at Narvawar. Instead he campaigned to no great effect in Poland and this allowed Peter The Russian Tsar sued for peace, but Charles rejected the Great to regroup overtures and decided to strengthen his militaryinvade Russia. The army that Charles faced at Poltava By this time, he was superior to popularly known as ‘The Alexander of the West,’ a comparison with Alexander the one he faced at NarvaGreat.<ref> Voltaire. Then there was Charles <i>The History of Charles XII's strategy of attacking Moscow deep in Russia</i> (London, Upton House, 1911), p. He ignored his generals who wanted him to conquer St Petersburg. The Swedish monarch strategy was too ambitious and he was not aware of the sheer extent of Russia34</ref> ====Charles XII invasion of Russia, 1708-1709====[[File: ZauerveydNA Petr1UsmirDA19. His army jpg|300px|thumbnail|left| Tsar Peter the Great]]While Charles was expected to travel huge distances bogged down in a terrible climate. These the vast Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great reformed the Russian military and ironically modeled his army on the Swedish forces. While the Swedes were to prove fatal mistakes. However, it must also be noted that bad luck was also campaigning in Germany and Poland after 1706, Peter ordered his forces into Ingaria and found a factor, such as new port to become the sudden collapse City of the Cossack rebellion St Petersburg. This gave the Russians an outlet to the sea, from which they could threaten Sweden in the Ukraine and the Baltic. Charles XII being unable to lead his men into battle was outraged at Poltavawhat he saw as a surprise attack.<ref> Voltaire. p.112</ref>   [[File: Mazepa2.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Charles XII and According to Voltaire, he wanted to annihilate Peter the leader of the Cossack rebels after the defeat at Poltava]]==Russian strategy and tactics==After the Russians defeat at HolowczynGreat. The Swedish monarch was quoted as saying ‘"I have resolved never to start an unjust war but never to end a legitimate one except by defeating my enemies."<ref> Voltaire, they dramatically changed tacticsp. Peter the Great and his generals adopted 37</ref> In 1708, he ordered a cautious strategy. They general invasion of Russia, and he decided to avoid a set battle ally himself with Charles whose army though inferior was much superior the rebellious Cossacks who had revolted against Peter in terms Ukraine. Ivan Mazepa, Hetman of experience and training. Instead they adopted delaying tactics knowing that the Swedes would suffer in Ukrainian Cossacks, managed to secure a vast area independent of the Steppes during Russians.  At the winter <ref> S Sebag-Montefiore. The Romanovs (Weidenfeld and Nicholsonlast minute, London, 2015)Charles assembled a large army but was obliged to leave some of his troops with the Polish King, pwho was his puppet. 114</ref>. They also concentrated on attacks on Charles XII supply line In total, the Swedish army was composed of 50,000 men, mostly Swedes and Finns. Many units were needed to defend Sweden and reinforcementsits extensive Empire. This effectively weakened the invading Charles marched his army. Perhaps into Livonia (now Belorussia). The Russians and the most brilliant piece Swedes clashed in a great Battle of strategy in the war was the Russians unexpected attack on the CossacksHolowczyn. This Charles was confronted by a huge Russian army that was numerically superior to leave Charles isolated during the Steppes at the onset of winterhis own. Tsar Peter the Great and his inner circle, developed a strategy The Swedish king secured a great victory with only minimal losses. The Russians decided that avoided direct confrontation<ref> Derry, p. 213</ref>. Their patience was rewarded it was best not to meet the Swedes in the battle and adopted guerrilla and the hungry hit and cold Swedish army run tactics.  At this point, Charles was forced urged to gamble march on St Petersburg, but the young monarch wanted to seize Moscow and put a battle at Poltava to quickly win puppet on the warthrone. This was He ordered the troops he had left with the Polish king to join him, no sooner than they had left that his Polish ally faced a disaster general revolt. The reinforcements were attacked by Peter’s army and suffered many casualties and it sealed the fate not only lost many precious cannons. Charles was now reliant on the support of the Swedish invasion but also the Swedish Empiremassive Cossack rebellion led by Mazepa in Ukraine. The strategy <ref> Derry, p. 116</ref> the Hetman had told the Swedes of Peter was to a large extent like the Cossacks that adopted by Tsar Paul I against Napoleon and by Stalin during Hitler’s invasionhe could provide them with 40,000 men. [[File: Marten's PoltavaHowever, the Russian army was quick to react, and they launched a surprise attack on the Cossacks at their capital Batruin in Ukraine.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Painting of They did so before the battle of Poltava]]==Conclusion==Cossacks could rendezvous with the Swedish army.<ref> Hatton, R.M. <i>Charles XII was one of the most talented military leaders Sweden</i> (London, MacFarland,1968), p. 113</ref> The invasion force of Charles was now in the Early Modern eravast Steppes of Ukraine with little support and an overextended supply line. Voltaire had no doubt that the entire invasion of Russia Winter was a mistake approaching, and in a critical biography he blamed Charles for the collapse of the Swedish Empire <ref> Voltairethe cold many, p. 99</ref>soldiers succumbed to frostbite. The Swedish king’s entire strategy Swedes decided to retreat to their winter camp in Western Ukraine in November 1708. In the following summer of invading Russia 1709, in a skirmish with some Russians, Charles was arguably unrealisticwounded and fell into a coma. The leadership of the army passed to Rehnskiöld. He made a cardinal error by marching on Moscow and he should have attacked and conquered St Petersburg instead The Swedes came across the army of Peter the Great at the fort of Poltava in June 1709. Then he placed too much trust in the Cossacks and his trust Despite being inferior in them was misplacednumbers, indeed they possibly distracted him from a direct besieged Poltava. Rehnskiöld launched several assaults on the fortifications, but all ended in failure, one assault on Moscowended in disaster, which may have given him some chance of successand the entire army retreated in chaos. Then there The Swedish king was able to lead his men once again, but it was the strategy too late. The bulk of the Russians. They used the geography Swedish army retreated to Perevolochna, where they were soon encircled and climate forced to great effectsurrender. They adopted Charles XII managed to escape with a cautious approachsmall number of followers into Ottoman territory, with the knowledge that the elements would help them to defeat the Swedesand he later returned to Sweden. Imperial The invasion of Russian forces were also was a modern fighting force disaster, and they fought courageously in defense it spelled the end of ‘Holy Russia’. Then there were the vast spaces Swedish Empire and inclement weather marked the advent of Russia onto the Russian Steppe and these played European stage as a crucial factor in the defeat of the Swedish invasion. Charles XII in hindsight did not really have a hope of victory over the Russian Tsar and the invasion was doomed from the start.major power. <dh-ad/> ====Russia and its geography==References==[[File: Mazepa2.jpg|300px|thumbnail|left|Charles XII and the leader of the Cossack rebels after the defeat at Poltava]]The sheer scale of Russia and its endless Steppes proved too much for the Swedes. Like subsequent invaders, they struggled in the vast landscape with its harsh climate. The Swedes were inured to Arctic weather, yet they felt extremely challenging fighting in the Ukrainian Plains.<ref> Voltaire, p. 89</ref> Charles lost many men to the extreme cold and frostbite.  Furthermore, they were far from home, and their supplies were scant. Trying to live off the land was futile as the Steppes had no real population centers, and those who lived there were usually destitute.<ref> Hatton, p. 217</ref> The sheer scale of Russia meant that Charles army was in a state of near physical collapse when it encountered the enemy at Poltava, and even if it had won here, it seems likely that it would have disintegrated as Napoleon’s Grand Armee had in the winter of 1813. ====The Cossack Alliance====The Ukrainian Cossacks had been in rebellion against Peter the Great for some time. Charles had entered an alliance with them in the hopes of securing a massive army. This alliance did not strengthen Charles as he had hoped. It had only weakened him and his army. To link up with the Cossacks, he moved away from the Russian heartland and headed into Ukraine.  Furthermore, the Cossacks had failed to meet him as had originally been planned, and they had been tardy in their deployment. The Cossack Hetman was not decisive and unwilling to leave his home base. This meant that he did not meet up with the Swedes, but the Russians were able to surround him and his men and end the Cossacks rebellion<ref> Hatton, p. 213</ref>. The alliance for Charles was a disaster, and when the Ukrainian Cossacks support failed to materialize, the invasion was in serious difficulties. ====Bad luck and judgement====Charles XII was widely seen as a military genius, and Voltaire, who wrote his biography, called him the most remarkable man of his time. However, he made several serious miscalculations. The first was that he should have invaded Russia after his great victory at Narva. Instead, he campaigned to no great effect in Poland, which allowed Peter the Great to regroup and strengthen his military. The army that Charles faced at Poltava was superior to the one he faced at Narva.  Then there was Charles XII's strategy of attacking Moscow deep in Russia. He ignored his generals, who wanted him to conquer St Petersburg. The Swedish monarch strategy was too ambitious, and he was not aware of Russia's sheer extent. His army was expected to travel huge distances in a terrible climate. These were to prove fatal mistakes. However, it must also be noted that bad luck was also a factor, such as the sudden collapse of the Cossack rebellion in Ukraine and Charles XII being unable to lead his men into battle at Poltava. ====Russian strategy and tactics====[[File: Marten's Poltava.jpg|300px|thumbnail|left|Painting of the battle of Poltava]]After the Russians' defeat at Holowczyn, they dramatically changed tactics. Peter the Great and his generals adopted a cautious strategy. They decided to avoid a set battle with Charles, whose army though inferior, was much superior in terms of experience and training. Instead, they adopted delaying tactics, knowing that the Swedes would suffer in the Steppes during the winter.<ref>S. Sebag-Montefiore. <i>The Romanovs</i> (Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London, 2015), p. 114</ref> They also concentrated on attacks on Charles XII supply line and reinforcements. This effectively weakened the invading army.  Perhaps the most brilliant strategy in the war was the Russians' unexpected attack on the Cossacks. This was to leave Charles isolated during the Steppes at the onset of winter. Tsar Peter the Great and his inner circle developed a strategy that avoided confrontation.<ref> Derry, p. 213</ref> Their patience was rewarded, and the hungry and cold Swedish army was forced to gamble on a battle at Poltava to win the war quickly. This was a disaster, and it sealed the fate of the Swedish invasion and the Swedish Empire. Peter's strategy was largely like that adopted by Tsar Paul I against Napoleon and Stalin during Hitler’s invasion. ====Conclusion====Charles XII was one of the most talented military leaders of the Early Modern era. Voltaire did not doubt that the entire invasion of Russia was a mistake. In a critical biography, he blamed Charles for the collapse of the Swedish Empire.<ref>Voltaire, p. 99</ref> The Swedish king’s entire strategy of invading Russia was arguably unrealistic. He made a cardinal error by marching on Moscow, and he should have attacked and conquered St Petersburg instead. Then he placed too much trust in the Cossacks, and his trust in them was misplaced. Indeed they possibly distracted him from a direct assault on Moscow, which may have given him some chance of success.  Then there was the strategy of the Russians. They used geography and climate to great effect. They adopted a cautious approach, knowing that the elements would help them defeat the Swedes. Imperial Russian forces were also a modern fighting force, and they fought courageously in defense of ‘Holy Russia.’ Then there were the vast spaces and inclement weather of the Russian Steppe, which played a crucial factor in the Swedish invasion's defeat. In hindsight, Charles XII did not really hope for victory over the Russian Tsar, and the invasion was doomed from the start. <youtube>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aTbbTMb5HVA</youtube> ====References====<references/> Updated November 21, 2020 {{Contributors}}[[Category:Wikis]][[Category:European History]][[Category:18th Century History]] [[Category:European History]] [[Category:Military History]][[Category:Russian History]]