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In the public's mind, few well -known conquerors in history match the exploits of Alexander the Great. In just a few years, from 334-330 BC, Alexander would go on to conquer the largest empire the world had known and establish his own empire that eventually stretched from Greece to India. Furthermore, Alexander began a process where Greek culture began to intermix with ancient Near Eastern, Egyptian, Central Asian, and Indian cultures that influenced much of the Old World for many centuries. The exchange of ideas and trade brought about an era of unprecedented prosperity and knowledge that advanced the ancient world's sciences and led to many discoveries that would not be replicated until the Renaissance in the 15 or 16th century AD. What is remarkable is he achieved all of this by the age of 32 at the time of his death in Babylon. However, the root of all the social change that would eventually influence Europe, the Near East, Egypt, and much of Asia rested in his ability to conquer a lot of territory and doing it quickly. The question is how did he do this?

====Initial Conquests====[[File:Alexandermosaic.jpg|thumbnail|left|275px|Figure 1. A mosaic showing Alexander attacking Darius III and his center line at the battle of Issus.]]Alexander took power after the death of his father, Philip II of Macedon, who had already planned to invade the Persian, Achaemenid Empire.<ref>For more on Alexander's father and his plans of conquests, see: Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly, and Daniel Ogden, eds. 2010. [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199738157/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0199738157&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=40e1c4808c9befad6d185d849b70849b Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives]. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> His first battles were in Greece and the Balkans, where he consolidated his power while suppressing several revolts. Shortly after crossing into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30,000-50,000 troops, Alexander quickly won his first major battle at Granicus.<ref>For more on this battle, see: Matthews, Rupert. 2008. Alexander the Great at the Battle of Granicus. Stroud: Spellmount.</ref> This victory allowed him to take the western half of Asia Minor. After a few sieges and taking the city of Sardis, one of the most important cities in Asia Minor, he proceeded toward Syria where he encountered the Persian King Darius III in 333 at the battle of Issus.<ref> For more on the battle of Issus, see: Delbrück, Hans. 1975. History of the Art of War. Lincoln, Neb: University of Nebraska Press/ Bison Book, pg. 191. </ref> This is the first major battle he had with the Persian king and once again Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking by outflanking the Persian army through the use of his cavalry. He made a direct attack on the Persian king's center line, where this key moment in the battle became a famous Roman era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1).

Shortly after crossing into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30,000-50,000 troops, Alexander quickly won his first major battle at Granicus.<ref>For more on this battle, see: Matthews, Rupert. 2008. <i>[[Filehttps:Alexandermosaic//www.jpg|thumbnail|left|275px|Figure 1amazon. A mosaic showing com/gp/product/1862274487/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1862274487&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=5cd69acbd10c5367b89300d97a9862e7 Alexander attacking the Great at the Battle of Granicus]</i>. Stroud: Spellmount.</ref> This victory allowed him to take the western half of Asia Minor. After a few sieges and taking the city of Sardis, one of the most important cities in Asia Minor, he proceeded toward Syria where he encountered the Persian King Darius III in 333 at the battle of Issus.<ref> For more on the battle of Issus, see: Delbrück, Hans. 1975. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0803265867/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0803265867&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f94cfc51938674926b5abff31bc432d5 History of the Art of War]</i>. Lincoln, Neb: University of Nebraska Press/ Bison Book, pg. 191. </ref> This is the first major battle he had with the Persian king, and once again Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking by outflanking the Persian army through the use of his cavalry. He made a direct attack on the Persian king's center line at , where this key moment in the battle of Issusbecame a famous Roman-era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1).]]

====The Levant, Syria, and Egypt====After the battle of Issus, Alexander took the Levant and the coastal Mediterranean cities, which were important trading cities and had allowed the Achaemenids to derive much of their wealth and establish their navy, and proceeded into Egypt. In Syria and the Levant, his only major encounters were the sieges of Tyre and Gaza in 332 BC.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in the Levant and Syria, see: Freeman, Philip. 2011. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1416592814/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1416592814&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=f5c583c6ae9445145f4140977f336b3f Alexander the Great]</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster, pg. 26. </ref> In Egypt, he was quickly accepted by the local population, as the Egyptians had revolted against the Achaemenids not long before Alexander and, therefore, saw this as an opportunity for new leadership.

After the battle of Issus, Alexander took the Levant and the coastal Mediterranean cities, which were important trading cities and had allowed the Achaemenids to derive much of their wealth and establish their navy, and proceeded into Egypt. In Syria and the Levant, his only major encounters were the sieges of Tyre and Gaza in 332 BC.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in the Levant and Syria, see: Freeman, Philip. 2011. Alexander the Great. New York: Simon & Schuster, pg. 26. </ref> In Egypt, he was quickly accepted by the local population, as the Egyptians had revolted against the Achaemenids not long before Alexander and, therefore, saw this as an opportunity for new leadership. Here, he became considered the son of Amun, the chief of the Egyptian pantheon, further exalting him in the eyes of his new subjects. Alexander also began the process of founding cities, the most famous of which was Alexandria. It's Its position along the Mediterranean reflects a key change, where Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean worlds would be more strongly integrated in into culture and trade in the centuries to come.<ref> For more on Alexander's time in Egypt, see: Bowman, Alan K. 1996. [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520205316/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0520205316&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=b3b436dd2cc5146e4b70f06b8ab1d48b Egypt after the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642 642] ; from Alexander to the Arab Conquest. 2. paperback printing. Berkeley, Calif.: Univ. of California Press, pg. 22</ref> That was Alexander's intention from the outset, showing that he likely had long-term, strategic thinking about the nature and future of his conquered lands long after his own time.

====Battle of Gaugamela and Fall of the Achaemenids====

The Achaemenids perhaps had one more great chance to defeat Alexander at the battle of Gaugamela near modern -day Erbil. There, once again Alexander's tactics proved decisive where his forces formed a wedge-shaped attack that then tore into Darius' center, causing the king to likely flee the battlelikely. With this battle secure, all of Mesopotamia fell to Alexander , and Alexander entered the great city of Babylon was entered by Alexander without any need for combat. It is at Babylon that Alexander perhaps decided he would make the city his the new capital of his now vast empire, as it would unit unite the Greek and Near Eastern worlds more closely. Alexander then went on to take Susa, the old capital of the Persians, and then the ceremonial capital of Persepolis, which was at least partially burned most likely by Alexander's troops.  <dh-ad/> Only one more major battle was fought against the Persians at the battle of the Persian Gates, a strategic crossing.<ref>For More on the Battles of Gaugamela and Alexander's later battles against the Persians, see: Wilcken, Ulrich, and Eugene N. Borza. 1967. Alexander the Great. Norton Library. New York: Norton, pg. 60. </ref> After this, Darius III was killed by one of his generals, and Achaemenid factions continued to lead a guerilla-style war against Alexander, although they squabbled between themselves over the remains of their empire.  This division allowed Alexander to easily reach Central Asia with only minor resistance, where he founded many cities along the way that gained importance during the rise of the Silk Road. This included the city of Kandahar in Afghanistan and eventually reaching Tajikistan, almost near the edge of Tibet. His wars continued in Central Asia and India, where he initially encountered major resistance.<ref> For more on Alexander's campaigns in Central Asia and India, see: Roy, Kaushik. 2004. <i>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/8178241099/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=8178241099&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=912065039072f879b4b3dfdca7da078a India’s Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil]</i>. Delhi : Bangalore: Permanent Black ; Distributed by Orient Longman, pg. 29</ref>  Alexander's battles were the first where European armies had encountered war elephants, which likely caused great fear in his army before eventually overcoming them in battle. Nevertheless, the difficulty of long campaigning and undoubtedly loss of many men led to his men tiring of conflict and eventually forcing Alexander to pull his forces back, finally reaching once again Babylon. By the time Alexander finished campaigning, he had created the first empire that connected Europe with Central Asia (Figure 2).

Only one more major battle was fought against the Persians at the battle of the Persian Gates, a strategic crossing.<ref>For more on the Battles of Gaugamela and ====Why Was He Successful====Alexander's later battles against the Persians, see: Wilcken, Ulrich, success lied in his military genius in knowing how to use his cavalry and Eugene Ntroops precisely at key moments in battle. Borza. 1967. Alexander Several times it seemed he was close to defeat but was able to use the Great. Norton Library. New York: Norton, pg. 60. </ref> After this, Darius III was killed situation to his advantage by one of luring his own generals and Achaemenid factions continued to lead enemies into a guerilla style war against Alexander, although they squabbled between themselves over the remains of their empiredeeper trap. This led Alexander to easily reach Central Asia with only minor resistanceFurthermore, where he founded many cities along the way that gained importance during the rise of the Silk Road. This included the city of Kandhar his troops were well trained in Afghanistan holding their positions and eventually reaching Tajikistan, almost near the edge of Tibet. His wars continued not panicking in Central Asia and India, where he initially encountered major resistancebattle.<ref> For more on the battle tactics of Alexander's campaigns in Central Asia and India, see: RoyBose, KaushikPartha Sarathi. 2004. <i>India’s Historic Battles[https: From //www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01FJ16XNM/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=B01FJ16XNM&linkCode=as2&tag=dailyh0c-20&linkId=641707a6856af1049e12d1340ff7334f Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy: Lessons from the Great to KargilEmpire Builder]</i>. Delhi : BangaloreLondon: Permanent Black ; Distributed by Orient Longman, pgProfile. 29</ref> However, a lot of the success had little to do with Alexander but the nature of the Achaemenid Empire.

Alexander's battles The Achaemenids were perhaps the first where European armies most successful empire up to that point. They had encountered war elephants, which likely caused great fear not only succeed in his army before eventually overcoming them in battleuniting a vast territory but also genuinely integrating it into a cohesive realm that traded extensively and had well-maintained roads. NeverthelessThe Achaemenid state was prosperous, the difficulty of long campaigning and undoubtedly loss of many men led people had by then began to his men tiring of battle move and eventually forcing Alexander to pull his forces backlive in areas far from their homelands. The world, eventually reaching once again Babylon. By the time Alexander finished campaigningin essence, he had created the first empire that connected Europe with Central Asia (Figure 2)become smaller thanks to many of their tolerant policies.

==Why Was He Successful==Clearly While it is true that Egypt and some other regions had revolted against them, many had benefited from the Achaemenids. It is no wonder, therefore, that Alexander's success lies in his military genius in knowing how to use his cavalry marries Persian royalty and troops precisely at key moments in battleeventually takes on the regalia of the Achaemenid kings. Several times it seemed This is also why he was close had planned for Babylon to defeat but be his new capital, as it was able to use one of the situation to his advantage by luring his enemies into a deeper trap. Furthermore, his troops were well trained in holding their positions chief cities and not panicking capitals of the Achaemenid Empire despite being in battleMesopotamia.<ref> For more on Commerce had now become the battle tactics of glue that bound many regions, and Alexander, see: Bose, Partha Sarathi. 2004understood this. This probably led to his men resenting Alexander 's penchant for the Great’s Art of Strategy: Lessons from the Great Empire Builder. London: Profile.</ref> HoweverAchaemenids, a lot of as the success had little to do with Alexander but Greeks still held beliefs that the nature of Persians were not on the Achaemenid Empiresame level as them.

The Achaemenids were perhaps the most successful empire up to that point. They had not only succeed in uniting While Alexander died before he could realize his dream of a vast territory but also truly integrating it into a cohesive super empire that traded extensively and had well maintained roads. The Achaemenid state was prosperous and people had by then began , the benefits of the east became more apparent to move his generals and live in areas far from their homelandsmen. The world, in essence, had become smaller thanks to many Many of their tolerant policies. While it is true that Egypt and some other regions had revolted against them, many had actually benefited from stayed after the Achaemenidswars. It is no wonder, thereforeNew Greek populations began to migrate to the Near East, that Alexander marries Persian royalty and eventually takes on the regalia process of the Achaemenid kingsmixing Hellenic and eastern cultures had started. This is also why he had planned for Babylon to be his new capital, as it was one The mixture knowledge of Greece and Near mixed and created an integrated understanding that facilitated the chief cities and capitals rise of the Achaemenid Empire despite being in Mesopotamia. Commerce had now become the glue that bound many regions astronomy, physics, mathematics, and Alexander understood thisother scientific fields. This probably led to his men resenting Alexander's penchant legacy lasted long after his death and his military success paved the way for the Achaemenids, as the Greeks still held beliefs tremendous Classical achievements that eventually became one of the Persians were not on foundations of the same level as themRenaissance and our modern Western world.

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[[Category:Near East History]][[Category:Ancient Egyptian Greek History]][[Category: Hellenistic Period]][[Category:Alexander the Great]]Updated January 18, 2019